https://github.com/lvgl/lv_binding_micropython

LVGL binding for MicroPython
https://github.com/lvgl/lv_binding_micropython

gui lvgl micropython tft

Last synced: 2 months ago
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LVGL binding for MicroPython

• Host: GitHub
• URL: https://github.com/lvgl/lv_binding_micropython
• Owner: lvgl
• License: mit
• Created: 2019-01-23T10:42:58.000Z (over 5 years ago)
• Default Branch: master
• Last Pushed: 2024-03-20T18:40:09.000Z (3 months ago)
• Last Synced: 2024-03-20T20:05:09.373Z (3 months ago)
• Topics: gui, lvgl, micropython, tft
• Language: C
• Homepage:
• Size: 3.69 MB
• Stars: 225
• Watchers: 9
• Forks: 150
• Open Issues: 28
• Metadata Files:
  • Readme: README.md
  • License: LICENSE

Lists

• awesome-micropython - lvgl - An object-oriented, component-based high-level GUI library with MicroPython binding. (Libraries / Display)

README

        
![Build lv_micropython unix port](https://github.com/lvgl/lv_binding_micropython/workflows/Build%20lv_micropython%20unix%20port/badge.svg)

# Bindings for LVGL

---

This repo is a submodule of [lv_micropython](https://github.com/lvgl/lv_micropython).

Please fork [lv_micropython](https://github.com/lvgl/lv_micropython) for a quick start with LVGL MicroPython Bindings.

---

See also [Micropython + LittlevGL](https://blog.lvgl.io/2019-02-20/micropython-bindings) blog post. (LittlevGL is the previous name of LVGL.)

For advanced features, see [Pure MicroPython Display Driver](https://blog.lvgl.io/2019-08-05/micropython-pure-display-driver) blog post.

For questions and discussions - please use the forum: https://forum.lvgl.io/c/micropython

## MicroPython

MicroPython Binding for LVGL provides an automatically generated MicroPython module with classes and functions that allow the user access much of the LVGL library.

The module is generated automatically by the script [`gen_mpy.py`](https://github.com/lvgl/lv_binding_micropython/blob/master/gen/gen_mpy.py).

This script reads, preprocesses and parses LVGL header files, and generates a C file `lv_mpy.c` which defines the MicroPython module (API) for accessing LVGL from MicroPython.

Micopython's build script (Makefile or CMake) should run `gen_mpy.py` automatically to generate and compile `lv_mpy.c`.

- If you would like to see an example of how a generated `lv_mpy.c` looks like, have a look at [`lv_mpy_example.c`](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/lvgl/lv_binding_micropython/master/gen/lv_mpy_example.c). Note that its only exported (non static) symbol is `mp_module_lvgl` which should be registered in MicroPython as a module.

- lv_binding_micropython is usually used as a git submodule of [lv_micropython](https://github.com/lvgl/lv_micropython) which builds MicroPython + LVGL + lvgl-bindings, but can also be used on other forks of MicroPython.

It's worth noting that the Micropython Bindings module (`lv_mpy.c`) is dependent on LVGL configuration.

LVGL is configured by `lv_conf.h` where different objects and features could be enabled or disabled. LVGL bindings are generated only for the enabled objects and features. Changing `lv_conf.h` requires re running `gen_mpy.py`, therefore it's useful to run it automatically in the build script, as done by lv_micropython.

### Memory Management

When LVGL is built as a MicroPython library, it is configured to allocate memory using MicroPython memory allocation functions and take advantage of MicroPython *Garbage Collection* ("gc").

This means that structs allocated for LVGL use don't need to be deallocated explicitly, gc takes care of that.

For this to work correctly, LVGL is configured to use gc and to use MicroPython's memory allocation functions, and also register all LVGL "root" global variables to MicroPython's gc.

From the user's perspective, structs can be created and will be collected by gc when they are no longer referenced.

However, LVGL screen objects (`lv.obj` with no parent) are automatically assigned to default display, therefore not collected by gc even when no longer explicitly referenced.

When you want to free a screen and all its descendants so gc could collect their memory, make sure you call `screen.delete()` when you no longer need it.

Make sure you keep a reference to your display driver and input driver to prevent them from being collected.

### Concurrency

This implementation of MicroPython Bindings to LVGL assumes that MicroPython and LVGL are running **on a single thread** and **on the same thread** (or alternatively, running without multithreading at all).

No synchronization means (locks, mutexes) are taken.

However, asynchronous calls to LVGL still take place periodically for screen refresh and other LVGL tasks such as animation.

This is achieved by using the internal MicroPython scheduler (that must be enabled), by calling `mp_sched_schedule`.

`mp_sched_schedule` is called when screen needs to be refreshed. LVGL expects the function `lv_task_handler` to be called periodically (see [lvgl/README.md#porting](https://github.com/lvgl/lvgl/blob/6718decbb7b561b68e450203b83dff60ce3d802c/README.md#porting)). This is usually handled in the display device driver.

Here is [an example](https://github.com/lvgl/lv_binding_micropython/blob/77b0c9f2678b6fbd0950fbf27380052246841082/driver/SDL/modSDL.c#L23) of calling `lv_task_handler` with `mp_sched_schedule` for refreshing LVGL. [`mp_lv_task_handler`](https://github.com/lvgl/lv_binding_micropython/blob/77b0c9f2678b6fbd0950fbf27380052246841082/driver/SDL/modSDL.c#L7) is scheduled to run on the same thread MicroPython is running, and it calls both `lv_task_handler` for LVGL task handling and `monitor_sdl_refr_core` for refreshing the display and handling mouse events.

With REPL (interactive console), when waiting for the user input, asynchronous events can also happen. In [this example](https://github.com/lvgl/lv_mpy/blob/bc635700e4186f39763e5edee73660fbe1a27cd4/ports/unix/unix_mphal.c#L176) we just call `mp_handle_pending` periodically when waiting for a keypress. `mp_handle_pending` takes care of dispatching asynchronous events registered with `mp_sched_schedule`.

### Structs Classes and globals

The LVGL binding script parses LVGL headers and provides API to access LVGL **classes** (such as `btn`) and **structs** (such as `color_t`). All structs and classes are available under lvgl micropython module.

lvgl Class contains:

- functions (such as `set_x`)

- enums related to that class (such as `STATE` of a `btn`)

lvgl struct contains only attributes that can be read or written. For example:

```python

c = lvgl.color_t()

c.ch.red = 0xff

```

structs can also be initialized from dict. For example, the example above can be written like this:

```python

c = lvgl.color_t({'ch': {'red' : 0xff}})

```

All lvgl globals (functions, enums, types) are available under lvgl module. For example, `lvgl.SYMBOL` is an "enum" of symbol strings, `lvgl.anim_create` will create animation etc.

### Callbacks

In C a callback is a function pointer.

In MicroPython we would also need to register a *MicroPython callable object* for each callback.

Therefore in the MicroPython binding we need to register both a function pointer and a MicroPython object for every callback.

Therefore we defined a **callback convention** that expects lvgl headers to be defined in a certain way. Callbacks that are declared according to the convention would allow the binding to register a MicroPython object next to the function pointer when registering a callback, and access that object when the callback is called.

The MicroPython callable object is automatically saved in a `user_data` variable which is provided when registering or calling the callback.

The callback convention assumes the following:

- There's a struct that contains a field called `void * user_data`.

- A pointer to that struct is provided as the first argument of a callback registration function.

- A pointer to that struct is provided as the first argument of the callback itself.

Another option is that the callback function pointer is just a field of a struct, in that case we expect the same struct to contain `user_data` field as well.

Another option is:

- A parameter called `void * user_data` is provided to the registration function as the last argument.

- The callback itself receives `void *` as the last argument

In this case, the user should provide either `None` or a dict as the `user_data` argument of the registration function.

The callback will receive a Blob which can be casted to the dict in the last argument.

(See `async_call` example below)

As long as the convention above is followed, the lvgl MicroPython binding script would automatically set and use `user_data` when callbacks are set and used.

From the user perspective, any python callable object (such as python regular function, class function, lambda etc.) can be user as an lvgl callbacks. For example:

```python

lvgl.anim_set_custom_exec_cb(anim, lambda anim, val, obj=obj: obj.set_y(val))

```

In this example an exec callback is registered for an animation `anim`, which would animate the y coordinate of `obj`.

An lvgl API function can also be used as a callback directly, so the example above could also be written like this:

```python

lv.anim_set_exec_cb(anim, obj, obj.set_y)

```

lvgl callbacks that do not follow the Callback Convention cannot be used with micropython callable objects. A discussion related to adjusting lvgl callbacks to the convention: https://github.com/lvgl/lvgl/issues/1036

The `user_data` field **must not be used directly by the user**, since it is used internally to hold pointers to MicroPython objects.

### Display and Input Drivers

LVGL can be configured to use different displays and different input devices. More information is available on [LVGL documentation](https://docs.lvgl.io/master/porting/display.html).

Registering a driver is essentially calling a registration function (for example `disp_drv_register`) and passing a function pointer as a parameter (actually a struct that contains function pointers). The function pointer is used to access the actual display / input device.

When implementing a display or input LVGL driver with MicroPython, there are 3 option:

- Implement a Pure Python driver. It the easiest way to implement a driver, but may perform poorly

- Implement a Pure C driver.

- Implemnent a Hybrid driver where the critical parts (such as the `flush` function) are in C, and the non-critical part (such as initializing the display) are implemented in Python.

An example of Pure/Hybrid driver is the [ili9XXX.py](https://github.com/lvgl/lv_binding_micropython/blob/master/driver/esp32/ili9XXX.py).

The driver registration should eventually be performed in the MicroPython script, either in the driver code itself in case of the pure/hybrid driver or in user code in case of C driver (for example, in the case of the SDL driver). Registering the driver on Python and not in C is important to make it easy for the user to select and replace drivers without building the project and changing C files.

When creating a display or input LVGL driver, make sure you let the user **configure all parameters on runtime**, such as SPI pins, frequency, etc.

Eventually the user would want to build the firmware once and use the same driver in different configuration without re-building the C project.

This is different from standard LVGL C drivers where you usually use macros to configure parameters and require the user to re-build when any configurations changes.

Example:

```python

# Initialize ILI9341 display

from ili9XXX import ili9341

self.disp = ili9341(dc=32, cs=33, power=-1, backlight=-1)

# Register xpt2046 touch driver

from xpt2046 import xpt2046

self.touch = xpt2046()

```

Example:

```python

# init

import lvgl as lv

lv.init()

from lv_utils import event_loop

WIDTH = 480

HEIGHT = 320

event_loop = event_loop()

disp_drv = lv.sdl_window_create(WIDTH, HEIGHT)

mouse = lv.sdl_mouse_create()

keyboard = lv.sdl_keyboard_create()

keyboard.set_group(self.group)

```

In this example we use LVGL built in LVGL driver.  

Currently supported drivers for Micropyton are

- LVGL built-in drivers such use the unix/Linux SDL (display, mouse, keyboard) and Frame Buffer (`/dev/fb0`)

- ILI9341 driver for ESP32

- XPT2046 driver for ESP32

- FT6X36 (capacitive touch IC) for ESP32

- Raw Resistive Touch for ESP32 (ADC connected to screen directly, no touch IC)

Driver code is under `/driver` directory.

Drivers can also be implemented in pure MicroPython, by providing callbacks (`disp_drv.flush_cb`, `indev_drv.read_cb` etc.)

Currently the supported ILI9341, FT6X36 and XPT2046 are pure micropython drivers.

### Where are the drivers?

LVGL C drivers and MicroPython drivers (either C or Python) are **separate and independent** from each other.

The main reason is configuration:

- The C driver is usually configured with C macros (which pins it uses, frequency, etc.)

Any configuration change requires rebuilding the firmware but that's understandable since any change in the application requires rebuilding the firmware anyway.

- In MicroPython the driver is built once with MicroPython firmware (if it's a C driver) or not built at all (if it's pure Python driver). On runtime the user initializes the driver and configures it. If the user switches SPI pins or some other configuration, there is no need to rebuild the firmware, just change the Python script and initialize the driver differently **on runtime**.

So the location for MicroPython drivers is https://github.com/lvgl/lv_binding_micropython/tree/master/driver and is unrelated to https://github.com/lvgl/lv_drivers.

### The Event Loop

LVGL requires an Event Loop to re-draw the screen, handle user input etc.

The default Event Loop is implement in [lv_utils.py](https://github.com/lvgl/lv_binding_micropython/blob/master/lib/lv_utils.py) which uses MicroPython Timer to schedule calls to LVGL.

It also supports running the Event Loop in [uasyncio](https://docs.micropython.org/en/latest/library/uasyncio.html) if needed.  

Some drivers start the event loop automatically if it doesn't already run. To configure the event loop for these drivers, just initialize the event loop before registering the driver.  

LVGL native drivers, such as the SDL driver, do not start the event loop. You must start the event loop explicitly otherwise screen will not refresh.

The event loop can be started like this:

```

from lv_utils import event_loop

event_loop = event_loop()

```

and you can configure it by providing parameters, see lv_utils.py for more details.

### Adding MicroPython Bindings to a project

An example project of "MicroPython + lvgl + Bindings" is [`lv_mpy`](https://github.com/lvgl/lv_mpy).

Here is a procedure for adding lvgl to an existing MicroPython project. (The examples in this list are taken from [`lv_mpy`](https://github.com/lvgl/lv_mpy)):

- Add [`lv_bindings`](https://github.com/lvgl/lv_binding_micropython) as a sub-module under `lib`.

- Add `lv_conf.h` in `lib`

- Edit the Makefile to run `gen_mpy.py` and build its product automatically. Here is [an example](https://github.com/lvgl/lv_micropython/blob/2940838bf6d4999050efecb29a4152ab5796d5b3/py/py.mk#L22-L38).

- Register lvgl module and display/input drivers in MicroPython as a builtin module. [An example](https://github.com/lvgl/lv_micropython/blob/2940838bf6d4999050efecb29a4152ab5796d5b3/ports/unix/mpconfigport.h#L230).

- Add lvgl roots to gc roots. [An example](https://github.com/lvgl/lv_micropython/blob/2940838bf6d4999050efecb29a4152ab5796d5b3/ports/unix/mpconfigport.h#L317-L318).

- ~Configure lvgl to use *Garbage Collection* by setting several `LV_MEM_CUSTOM_*` and `LV_GC_*` macros [example](https://github.com/lvgl/lv_mpy/blob/bc635700e4186f39763e5edee73660fbe1a27cd4/lib/lv_conf.h#L28)~ lv_conf.h was moved to lv_binding_micropython git module.

- Make sure you configure partitions correctly in `partitions.csv` and leave enough room for the LVGL module.

- Something I forgot? Please let me know.

### gen_mpy.py syntax

```

usage: gen_mpy.py [-h] [-I ] [-D ]

                  [-E ] [-M ]

                  [-MP ] [-MD ]

                  input [input ...]

positional arguments:

  input

optional arguments:

  -h, --help            show this help message and exit

  -I , --include 

                        Preprocessor include path

  -D , --define 

                        Define preprocessor macro

  -E , --external-preprocessing 

                        Prevent preprocessing. Assume input file is already

                        preprocessed

  -M , --module_name 

                        Module name

  -MP , --module_prefix 

                        Module prefix that starts every function name

  -MD , --metadata 

                        Optional file to emit metadata (introspection)

```

Example:

```

python gen_mpy.py -MD lv_mpy_example.json -M lvgl -MP lv -I../../berkeley-db-1.xx/PORT/include -I../../lv_binding_micropython -I. -I../.. -Ibuild -I../../mp-readline -I ../../lv_binding_micropython/pycparser/utils/fake_libc_include ../../lv_binding_micropython/lvgl/lvgl.h

```

### Binding other C libraries

The lvgl binding script can be used to bind other C libraries to MicroPython.

I used it with [lodepng](https://github.com/lvandeve/lodepng) and with parts of ESP-IDF.

For more details please read [this blog post](https://blog.lvgl.io/2019-08-05/micropython-pure-display-driver).

## MicroPython Bindings Usage

A simple example: [`advanced_demo.py`](https://github.com/lvgl/lv_binding_micropython/blob/master/gen/examples/advanced_demo.py).

More examples can be found under `/examples` folder.

#### Importing and Initializing LVGL

```python

import lvgl as lv

lv.init()

```

#### Registering Display and Input drivers

```python

from lv_utils import event_loop

WIDTH = 480

HEIGHT = 320

event_loop = event_loop()

disp_drv = lv.sdl_window_create(WIDTH, HEIGHT)

mouse = lv.sdl_mouse_create()

keyboard = lv.sdl_keyboard_create()

keyboard.set_group(self.group)

```

In this example, LVGL native SDL display and input drivers are registered on a unix port of MicroPython.

Here is an alternative example for ESP32 ILI9341 + XPT2046 drivers:

```python

import lvgl as lv

# Import ILI9341 driver and initialized it

from ili9XXX import ili9341

disp = ili9341()

# Import XPT2046 driver and initialize it

from xpt2046 import xpt2046

touch = xpt2046()

```

By default, both ILI9341 and XPT2046 are initialized on the same SPI bus with the following parameters:

- ILI9341: `miso=5, mosi=18, clk=19, cs=13, dc=12, rst=4, power=14, backlight=15, spihost=esp.HSPI_HOST, mhz=40, factor=4, hybrid=True`

- XPT2046: `cs=25, spihost=esp.HSPI_HOST, mhz=5, max_cmds=16, cal_x0 = 3783, cal_y0 = 3948, cal_x1 = 242, cal_y1 = 423, transpose = True, samples = 3`

You can change any of these parameters on ili9341/xpt2046 constructor.

You can also initialize them on different SPI buses if you want, by providing miso/mosi/clk parameters. Set them to -1 to use existing (initialized) spihost bus.

Here's another example, this time importing and initialising display and touch drivers for the M5Stack Core2 device, which uses an FT6336 chip on the I2C bus to read from its capacitive touch screen and uses an ili9342 display controller, which has some inverted signals compared to the ili9341:

```python

from ili9XXX import ili9341

disp = ili9341(mosi=23, miso=38, clk=18, dc=15, cs=5, invert=True, rot=0x10)

from ft6x36 import ft6x36

touch = ft6x36(sda=21, scl=22, width=320, height=280)

```

## Driver `init` parameters

Many different display modules can be supported by providing the driver's init method with `width`,

`height`, `start_x`, `start_y`, `colormode`, `invert` and `rot` parameters.

### Display size

The `width` and `height` parameters should be set to the width and height of the display in the

orientation the display will be used. Displays may have an internal framebuffer that is larger than

the visible display. The `start_x` and `start_y` parameters are used to indicate where visible

pixels begin relative to the start of the internal framebuffer.

### Color handling

The `colormode` and `invert` parameters control how the display processes color.

### Display orientation

The `rot` parameter is used to set the MADCTL register of the display. The MADCTL register controls

the order that pixels are written to the framebuffer. This sets the Orientation or Rotation of the

display.

See the [README.md](examples/madctl/README.md) file in the [examples/madctl](examples/madctl/)

directory for more information on the MADCTL register and how to determine the `colormode` and `rot`

parameters for a display.

### st7789 driver class

By default, the st7789 driver is initialized with the following parameters that are compatible with the TTGO T-Display:

```

    st7789(

        miso=-1, mosi=19, clk=18, cs=5, dc=16, rst=23, power=-1, backlight=4,

        backlight_on=1, power_on=0, spihost=esp.HSPI_HOST, mhz=40, factor=4, hybrid=True,

        width=320, height=240, start_x=0, start_y=0, colormode=COLOR_MODE_BGR, rot=PORTRAIT,

        invert=True, double_buffer=True, half_duplex=True, asynchronous=False, initialize=True)

```

  Parameter | Description

  --------- | -----------

  miso | Pin for SPI Data from display, -1 if not used as many st7789 displays do not have this pin

  mosi | Pin for SPI Data to display (REQUIRED)

  clk | Pin for SPI Clock (REQUIRED)

  cs | Pin for display CS

  dc | Pin for display DC (REQUIRED)

  rst | Pin for display RESET

  power | Pin for display Power ON, -1 if not used

  power_on | Pin value for Power ON

  backlight | Pin for display backlight control

  backlight_on | Pin value for backlight on

  spihost | ESP SPI Port

  mhz | SPI baud rate in mhz

  factor | Decrease frame buffer by factor

  hybrid | Boolean, True to use C refresh routine, False for pure Python driver

  width | Display width

  height | Display height

  colormode | Display colormode

  rot | Display orientation, PORTRAIT, LANDSCAPE, INVERSE_PORTRAIT, INVERSE_LANDSCAPE or Raw MADCTL value that will be OR'ed with colormode

  invert | Display invert colors setting

  double_buffer | Boolean, True to use double buffering, False to use single buffer (saves memory)

  half_duplex | Boolean, True to use half duplex SPI communications

  asynchronous | Boolean, True to use asynchronous routines

  initialize | Boolean, True to initialize display

#### TTGO T-Display st7789 Configuration example

```

import lvgl as lv

from ili9XXX import st7789

disp = st7789(width=135, height=240, rot=st7789.LANDSCAPE)

```

#### TTGO TWatch-2020 st7789 Configuration example

```

import lvgl as lv

from ili9XXX import st7789

import axp202c

# init power manager, set backlight

axp = axp202c.PMU()

axp.enablePower(axp202c.AXP202_LDO2)

axp.setLDO2Voltage(2800)

# init display

disp = st7789(

    mosi=19, clk=18, cs=5, dc=27, rst=-1, backlight=12, power=-1,

    width=240, height=240, rot=st7789.INVERSE_PORTRAIT, factor=4)

```

### st7735 driver class

By default, the st7735 driver is initialized with the following parameters. The parameter descriptions are

the same as the st7789.

```

    st7735(

        miso=-1, mosi=19, clk=18, cs=13, dc=12, rst=4, power=-1, backlight=15, backlight_on=1, power_on=0,

        spihost=esp.HSPI_HOST, mhz=40, factor=4, hybrid=True, width=128, height=160, start_x=0, start_y=0,

        colormode=COLOR_MODE_RGB, rot=PORTRAIT, invert=False, double_buffer=True, half_duplex=True,

        asynchronous=False, initialize=True):

```

### ST7735 128x128 Configuration Example

```

from ili9XXX import st7735, MADCTL_MX, MADCTL_MY

disp = st7735(

    mhz=3, mosi=18, clk=19, cs=13, dc=12, rst=4, power=-1, backlight=15, backlight_on=1,

    width=128, height=128, start_x=2, start_y=1, rot=PORTRAIT)

```

### ST7735 128x160 Configuration Example

```

from ili9XXX import st7735, COLOR_MODE_RGB, MADCTL_MX, MADCTL_MY

disp = st7735(

    mhz=3, mosi=18, clk=19, cs=13, dc=12, rst=4, backlight=15, backlight_on=1,

    width=128, height=160, rot=PORTRAIT)

```

### Creating a screen with a button and a label

```python

scr = lv.obj()

btn = lv.button(scr)

btn.align(lv.scr_act(), lv.ALIGN.CENTER, 0, 0)

label = lv.label(btn)

label.set_text("Button")

# Load the screen

lv.scr_load(scr)

```

### Creating a screen with a button and a label

```python

scr = lv.obj()

btn = lv.button(scr)

btn.align(lv.scr_act(), lv.ALIGN.CENTER, 0, 0)

label = lv.label(btn)

label.set_text("Button")

# Load the screen

lv.scr_load(scr)

```

#### Creating an instance of a struct

```python

symbolstyle = lv.style_t(lv.style_plain)

```

symbolstyle would be an instance of `lv_style_t` initialized to the same value of `lv_style_plain`

#### Setting a field in a struct

```python

symbolstyle.text.color = lv.color_hex(0xffffff)

```

symbolstyle.text.color would be initialized to the color struct returned by `lv_color_hex`

#### Setting a nested struct using dict

```python

symbolstyle.text.color = {"red":0xff, "green":0xff, "blue":0xff}

```

#### Creating an instance of an object

```python

self.tabview = lv.tabview(lv.scr_act())

```

The first argument to an object constructor is the parent object, the second is which element to copy this element from.

Both arguments are optional.

#### Calling an object method

```python

self.symbol.align(self, lv.ALIGN.CENTER,0,0)

```

In this example `lv.ALIGN` is an enum and `lv.ALIGN.CENTER` is an enum member (an integer value).

#### Using callbacks

```python

for btn, name in [(self.btn1, 'Play'), (self.btn2, 'Pause')]:

    btn.set_event_cb(lambda obj=None, event=-1, name=name: self.label.set_text('%s %s' % (name, get_member_name(lv.EVENT, event))))

```

Using callback with `user_data` argument:

```python

def cb(user_data):

    print(user_data.cast()['value'])

lv.async_call(cb, {'value':42})

```

#### Listing available functions/members/constants etc.

```python

print('\n'.join(dir(lvgl)))

print('\n'.join(dir(lvgl.btn)))

...

```