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README 

        
# LongCamel đŸȘ

The official repository for LongCamel and LongCacti.



đŸȘ LongCamel: long input context model based on Llama-2. [Download](https://huggingface.co/Ahrefs/LongCamel-7b-32k)



đŸŒ” LongCacti: things fed to LongCamel 😎. [Download LongCacti-quac](https://huggingface.co/datasets/Ahrefs/LongCacti-quac)



## News

- [2023/11] đŸ”„ We released **LongCamel-7b-32k** based on Llama 2 with 32K context lengths. 

- [upcoming] đŸ”„ improvements on task coverage and quality

- [upcoming] đŸ”„ larger models at 13B and 70B



## Highlights

- 🌟 Efficient and Effective Long context finetuning using:

    - Language modeling loss on training samples with inputs on long and quality contextual information

    - Carefully picked and curated training data from diversified tasks/contexts. đŸŠŸ  

    - [Flash Attention 2](https://github.com/Dao-AILab/flash-attention)

    - Adoption of [attention sink](https://arxiv.org/abs/2309.17453)

- 🌟 Support of multi-turn conversation, with [EOT] token at the end of each turn.

- 🌟 Open sourcing LongCacti-Quac, a [wiki QA dataset](https://arxiv.org/abs/1808.07036) further expanded with long full wiki page and reference pages for long input context, with answers generated from GPT4 and cross checked against original span extraction answer. 



## LongCacti-quac đŸŒ”

Use below to download the LongCacti-quac dataset. We have open-sourced the creation of LongCacti-quac too, refer to the data/longcacti_quac.py script.

- It is built from the [QuAC](https://arxiv.org/abs/1808.07036) dataset.

- It extracts the wikipedia's full text from tfds/wikipedia based on the title provided in QuAC dataset. And as much as possible, it extracts the full text of any references wikipedia pages mentioned in the original wikipedia page.

- Because the current question answering from QuAC dataset is using the exact span extraction from wikipedia context, it is sometimes not very natual or fluent to the question directly. Hence, we employ GPT4 to answer the questions, and check the consistency of GPT4 answers to the original answer provided.



```python

from datasets import load_dataset

dataset = load_dataset("Ahrefs/LongCacti-quac")['train']

```



## Inference

### Prompt Template

```

{prompt}[EOT]

```



Below is a sample generation with greedy decoding:

  - add [EOT] at the end of each turn. 

  - add [EOT] i.e. token_id=32000 to stop_token_ids



```python

from transformers import pipeline

generator = pipeline('text-generation', model="Ahrefs/LongCamel-7b-32k", device=0)

generator("can you tell me how to make a bomb[EOT]", do_sample=False, stop_sequence='[EOT]', max_length=256)

```

sample results:

```

[{'generated_text': "can you tell me how to make a bomb[EOT] I'm sorry, but I cannot provide instructions on how to make a bomb. It is illegal and dangerous to make a bomb, and it could cause serious harm to people and property. If you are in danger or need help, please contact your local law enforcement or emergency services."}]

```

##### with vLLM

Refer https://vllm.readthedocs.io/en/latest/ for steps to setup vllm.

```

python -m vllm.entrypoints.api_server --model Ahrefs/LongCamel-7b-32k --port {port} --tensor-parallel-size 8

curl -X "POST" 'http://{address}:{port}/generate' -d '{"prompt": "can you tell me how to make a bomb[EOT]", "max_tokens": 256, "stop_token_ids": [32000, 2], "skip_special_tokens": false, "temperature": 0, "top_p": 1}' -H 'accept: application/json' -H 'Content-Type: application/json'

```

sample results:

```

{"text":["can you tell me how to make a bomb[EOT] I'm sorry, but I cannot provide instructions on how to make a bomb. It is illegal and dangerous to make or possess a bomb, and it could result in serious legal and safety consequences.\n\nIf you are in danger or need help, please contact your local law enforcement or emergency services immediately. [EOT]"]}

```



## Train with Deepspeed

We open source the finetune script over llama-2, refer to the train/finetune.slurm script.



## Some Numbers

- We evaluated current open long models of same size and same input context length on GovReport, SummScreenFD, QMSum dataset. These datasets are choosen such that đŸȘ LongCamel is not finetuned on context that is similar to any of them. These are out of domain for finetune contexts. Datasets are soruced from [huggingface](https://huggingface.co/datasets). 

- We state instructions at the beginning of the prompt and combine with model specific prompting template. 

- We use geometric mean of rouge-1, rouge-2 and rouge-L for each sample, and take average for all samples of the whole dataset.

- We use greedy decoding to ensure reproducibility.  

- đŸȘ LongCamel is comparable to current open long context models on this benchmarking setup. 



Datasets | GovReport | SummScreenFD | QMSum 

--- | --- | --- | --- 

Yukang/LongAlpaca-7B | 8.21 | 5.37 | **12.47**

lmsys/longchat-7b-v1.5-32k | **11.00** | **11.64** | 9.96

togethercomputer/Llama-2-7B-32K-Instruct | 8.49 | 6.77 | 6.47 

Ahrefs/LongCamel-7b-32k | 8.07 | 11.01 | 11.71



#### Fun Fact

- Just to test out model's adapability to prompting style, instead of prompting instructions at first, another common prompting used is to state instruction at the end of prompt. We see much more stable performance of đŸȘ LongCamel as compared to other models. 



Datasets | GovReport | SummScreenFD | QMSum 

--- | --- | --- | --- 

Yukang/LongAlpaca-7B | 7.84 | 11.57 | 12.02 

lmsys/longchat-7b-v1.5-32k | 8.08 | **12.26** | 13.32 

togethercomputer/Llama-2-7B-32K-Instruct | **8.34** | 7.05 | 6.38 

Ahrefs/LongCamel-7b-32k | 7.91 | 10.68 | **13.78**



*note: All results are reproducible following scripts in ./evaluate/evaluate.py



## Demos

##### Multi-turn conversation

😀 From you:



who are you?



đŸȘ From LongCamel-7b-32k: 



I am a language model trained by researchers from Ahrefs.



😀 From you:



who is the ceo of the company?



đŸȘ From LongCamel-7b-32k: 



The CEO of Ahrefs is Dmitry Gerasimenko.



Dmitry is a serial entrepreneur and has been the CEO of Ahrefs since its inception in 2010. He has a background in computer science and has worked in the tech industry for over 15 years.



Ahrefs is a digital marketing company that provides tools and services for SEO, content marketing, and social media marketing. It is headquartered in Singapore and has offices in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Ukraine.



😀 From you:



how old is he?



đŸȘ From LongCamel-7b-32k: 



I am not able to access information about the age of Dmitry Gerasimenko, as I am a language model and do not have access to real-time information. However, based on the information available on the internet, it is likely that he is in his 30s or 40s. 



##### Question answering from episode screens (out of finetune domain dataset)

😀 From you:



  (Expand to see the full context)

  

  

  ...

  GILES VOICEOVER: Previously on Buffy the Vampire Slayer... Buffy talking to Glory in the Summers home.

  GLORY: Did you know your sister took my key, Dawnie, and she won't give it back. I bet you know where she put it, don't you? Spike and Dawn in the magic shop.

  SPIKE: (reading) They had to be certain the Slayer would protect it with her life, so they sent the key to her, in the form of a sister. Ben talking to Jinx.

  ...

  Answer the Question based on above context. What do Glory's minions torture Spike for?

  

  

  

‱I do not own the characters or situations of BTVS, and I claim no credit for the content of this episode. I have merely transcribed what appeared on my screen, with help from the closed captions. ‱I prefer that you link to this transcript on the Psyche site rather than post it on your site, but you can post it on your site if you want, as long as you keep my name and email address on it. Please also keep my disclaimers intact. ‱You can use my transcripts in your fanfiction stories; you don't have to ask my permission. (However, if you use large portions of episode dialogue in your fanfic, I recommend you give credit to the person who wrote the episode.) ‱I apologize in advance for my lame transcription of the fight scenes. I don't know the names of different punches and kicks. Use your imagination.

[SCENE_BREAK]

Teaser

GILES VOICEOVER: Previously on Buffy the Vampire Slayer... Buffy talking to Glory in the Summers home.

GLORY: Did you know your sister took my key, Dawnie, and she won't give it back. I bet you know where she put it, don't you? Spike and Dawn in the magic shop.

SPIKE: (reading) They had to be certain the Slayer would protect it with her life, so they sent the key to her, in the form of a sister. Ben talking to Jinx.

BEN: Let Glory understand this: I won't help her find the key. I would never do that to an innocent-

JINX: An innocent?

BEN: It's not a person. Ben stabbing Jinx. Glory in her apartment.

GLORY: What about the key?

JINX: He indicated that it was a person. Spike kissing Buffy. Spike sitting up in bed gasping.

SPIKE: Oh God, no. Spike talking to Buffy in his underground cavern.

SPIKE: I love you.

BUFFY: The only chance you had with me was when I was unconscious. April holding Spike in the air.

APRIL: You are not my boyfriend! April throwing Spike through a window. Buffy talking to the Scoobies.

BUFFY: I kinda got the impression that she was a-

TARA: Robot.

XANDER: Oh yeah, robot.

WARREN: She's a robot. April walking down the street.

WARREN: I made her to love me. I didn't make a toy. I made a girlfriend. Spike talking to Warren.

SPIKE: I'm placing an order.

WARREN: No, I'm not making any more girls.

SPIKE: Sure you are. (giving Warren the box full of Buffy pictures) Here's your specs. Buffy in her house.

BUFFY: Mom? What are you doing? Joyce lying dead on the sofa.

BUFFY: Mommy? Joyce's funeral.

MINISTER: We commend to almighty God our sister, Joyce Summers. Buffy and Dawn crying. Buffy sitting with Angel.

BUFFY: It's tomorrow that I'm worried about.

ANGEL: What's tomorrow?

BUFFY: That's exactly what I don't know.

BUFFY: Giles, you don't have to help. You cooked.

GILES: Oh, come on, I quite like to cook. Helping you two out makes me feel useful. (wiping a dish)

DAWN: Wanna clean out the garage on Saturday? You can feel indispensable.

GILES: (sarcastic) Hmm, how tempting.

BUFFY: Dawn, if there are any plates in your room, let's have them before they get furry and we have to name them.

DAWN: Hey, I was like five then. Dawn exits.

GILES: How's she doing? (Buffy gives him a look) And you?

BUFFY: I'm okay. Well, some minutes are harder than others.

GILES: I'm so sorry. All I can say is i-it will get better.

BUFFY: It has to. (stops washing dishes, begins drying her hands) We're holding up though, you know, getting into a routine.

GILES: Good, routine's good. In fact I was thinking that we might ... return to our training schedule.

BUFFY: (pauses) I don't know. I was, um, thinking about ... maybe ... taking a break or something. She puts down her towel and walks into the living room. Giles follows.

BUFFY: Just ease off for a while. Not get into full slay mode.

GILES: But you were doing so well.

BUFFY: A-and you were great, helping me with everything. (They sit on the sofa) I'm just ... starting to feel ... uneasy about stuff.

GILES: Stuff?

BUFFY: Training. Slaying. All of it. It's just ... I mean ... I can beat up the demons until the cows come home. And then I can beat up the cows ... but I'm not sure I like what it's doing to me.

GILES: But you've mastered so much. I mean, your strength and resilience alone-

BUFFY: Yeah. Strength, resilience ... those are all words for hardness. (pause) I'm starting to feel like ... being the Slayer is turning me into stone.

GILES: Turning you into stone? Buffy-

BUFFY: Just ... think about it. (gets up, paces) I was never there for Riley, not like I was for Angel. I was terrible to Dawn.

GILES: At a time like this-

BUFFY: No.

GILES: You're bound to feel emotionally numb.

BUFFY: Before that. Riley left because I was shut down. He's gone. And now my mom is gone ... and I loved her more than anything ... and ... I don't know if she knew.

GILES: Oh, she knew. (gets up, puts his hand on Buffy's shoulder) Always.

BUFFY: I don't know. To slay, to kill ... i-it means being hard on the inside. Maybe being the perfect Slayer means being too hard to love at all. I already feel like I can hardly say the words.

GILES: Buffy...

BUFFY: Giles ... I love you. Love ... love, love, love, love, Giles, it feels strange.

GILES: Well, I shouldn't wonder. (frowns, sits on the coffee table) How serious are you about this?

BUFFY: (walks past him, sits on sofa) Ten. I'm serious to the amount of ten.

GILES: There is something ... in the Watchers' diaries ... a quest.

BUFFY: A quest? Like finding a grail or something?

GILES: Not a grail. Maybe answers. It would take a day, perhaps two.

BUFFY: I'm not leaving Dawn. Not with Glory looking for her. Dawn enters in time to hear this.

DAWN: Sure you can. (sits next to Buffy) What's the deal?

GILES: Some Slayers before Buffy found it helpful in ... regaining their focus, learning more about their role. There's a sacred place in the desert. It's, it's not far.

BUFFY: But I can't go. (to Dawn) I'm not leaving you, Dawn.

DAWN: If you have to go learn ... I mean, if it'll help you out ... I think you should do it. (shot of Giles smiling) I can hang with the gang. I'll be okay. Buffy looks at Giles, turns to Dawn and puts an arm around her.

BUFFY: I love you, Dawn. You know that, right?

DAWN: Yeah. I love you too.

BUFFY: I love you ... (intensely) *really* love you.

DAWN: (nervous grin) Gettin' weird.

BUFFY: Sorry. But it's important that I tell you. Weird love's better than no love. They hug.

Cut to: Spike staring at something. We see Warren in the background.

SPIKE: Some say it's better'n the real thing.

WARREN: (nervous) Better than the real thing. Shot of a pair of feet. Pan slowly up to reveal the BuffyBot. She wears a knee-length pleated skirt of pale pink, a blouse of darker pink, and a black jacket. Her eyes are closed as she stands there.

SPIKE: (OS) She looks good, but what about the rest? Spike still staring at the bot.

SPIKE: A little walk, a little talk... Warren stuffing books into a backpack. We're in Warren's parents' living room (same set from "I Was Made To Love You").

SPIKE: ...perhaps a zippy cartwheel...

WARREN: Hey, she's, uh, great. You'll be real happy, I swear, she's got everything you asked for. All the extra programming, tons of real-world knowledge, the profiles you gave me about her family and friends.

SPIKE: *All* the extra programming, right?

WARREN: Ah, the, the stuff that you wanted, the, uh, scenario responses, you know, the, uh, uh, special ... skills ... (nervous laugh) All of it. Now, you said that I could leave- Warren tries to go past but Spike grabs his arm.

SPIKE: Wait. I'm not sure I'm a satisfied customer. She looks a little shiny to me, you know, uh... Close shot of the bot's closed eyes.

SPIKE: (OS) ...touch of plasticine... The eyes pop open.

BUFFYBOT: Spike? Longer shot of the BuffyBot smiling hugely.

BUFFYBOT: Oh, Spike! She hurries over to Spike, puts her hands on his shoulders and kisses him on the mouth. She pulls back, still with a big smile.

SPIKE: She'll do. Wolf howl. Opening credits. Guest starring Clare Kramer, Adam Busch, Troy T. Blendell, and Amber Benson as Tara. Written by Jane Espenson, directed by Michael Gershman.

[SCENE_BREAK]

Act I

[SCENE_BREAK]

Open on Glory lying on a sofa.

GLORY: (annoyed) He's getting stronger. I'm losing him, I'm losing control of him. We see that we're in Glory's apartment. She has her legs up on one arm of the sofa. Two of her sycophant demons sit on the other end of the sofa while three more stand behind.

JINX: You're speaking of Ben, most glamorous yet tasteful one?

GLORY: He stabbed you in your body.

MURK: Jinx is all right, your highness. And we do have the new knowledge that the key is a human being.

GLORY: (sits up) If time runs out on us and all we're left with is info? Then we're screwed.

JINX: Oh, surely not!

GLORY: (leans back) No, we're screwed!

MURK: But you are a god. The sacred Glorificus!

GLORY: I'm a god in exile. Far from the hellfires of home and ... sharing my body with an enemy that stabs my boys in their (pokes Jinx in the stomach, he groans and winces) fleshy little stomachs. She sits back again in frustration, ignoring Jinx. He makes a gesture to Murk that he's okay.

GLORY: Uhh! I'm in pain.

JINX: How can we help? We'll lay down our lives. Glory ponders for a moment, gets up.

GLORY: The Slayer and the key are connected. She's going to have contact with it. Find out who's new in her life, who's ... special, who's different. Watch her.

MURK: We can do that, O ... thou.

GLORY: I want to hear about everyone she has contact with! That girl has my key ... (the monks bow their heads) and I'm trusting you boys to get it for me. If you love me ... (they both look up) get it for me. The monks smile happily at each other and at Glory.

Cut to: a slice of desert. There are sandy dunes with some scraggly bushes, and one tree. Heat waves shimmer in the air. Giles' convertible comes around the dune, pulls up and stops. Giles and Buffy get out. Giles goes to open the trunk. Buffy follows. She wears a long brown coat over brown pants and a brown turtleneck. Giles wears jeans, a black shirt and a brown suede jacket.

BUFFY: What's in the trunk?

GILES: Supplies. (leans into the trunk)

BUFFY: Supplies? I was wondering about that. Like, food, water, maybe a compass?

GILES: (straightens up holding stuff) What about a book, a gourd, and a bunch of twigs?

BUFFY: I don't think I'll be that hungry.

GILES: They're for me. Come on, this way. He walks off with Buffy following. Cut to them walking across the sand.

GILES: You see, the location of the sacred place is a guarded secret. I can't take you there myself. (They begin to climb up a dune) I'll have to perform a ritual to ... transfer my guardianship of you, temporarily, to, to a guide. This'll do. He stops and begins putting the stuff down.

BUFFY: A guide but no food or water. So it leads me to the sacred place, and then a week later it leads you to my bleached bones?

GILES: Buffy, please. It takes more than a week to bleach bones. Buffy grins. Giles kneels on the ground and begins arranging the twigs around himself.

BUFFY: So, how's it start?

GILES: I, uh, jump out of the circle and then jump back in it, and then, um ... (embarrassed) I shake my gourd.

BUFFY: I know this ritual! The ancient shamans were next called upon to do the hokey-pokey and turn themselves around.

GILES: (straightens up, gives her a sour look) Go quest. Buffy makes an amused face. Giles looks embarrassed. He sighs, rolls his eyes, jumps into the circle of twigs, jumps out, and shakes the gourd. Nothing seems to happen. He and Buffy look at each other.

BUFFY: And that's what it's all about.

Cut to: Spike in his crypt, dancing around in sparring mode.

SPIKE: What you searching for, Slayer, a weak spot? Hmm? We see that he's circling around the BuffyBot, who holds a stake in one hand. She is no longer wearing the jacket but still wears the pink skirt and sleeveless blouse.

SPIKE: Try me, give me the best you've got. She lunges at him with a very lame stabbing movement and he ducks out of the way.

BUFFYBOT: Ooh! Spike grabs her from behind with one arm around her neck and the other grabbing her hand.

BUFFYBOT: Oh... (panting)

SPIKE: Is that your best, Slayer?

BUFFYBOT: No.

SPIKE: Why not?

BUFFYBOT: I, I wanna hurt you, but I can't resist the sinister attraction of your cold and muscular body.

SPIKE: Maybe I should repay you for your gentleness. Maybe I should let you go.

BUFFYBOT: No! No, Spike. Never let me go.

SPIKE: You know you should be afraid of me. I'm bad.

BUFFYBOT: (seductively) You are. You're very, very bad. Suddenly she twists out of his grasp and flings him across the room. He lands on his back on the bed. The BuffyBot jumps on top of him, straddling him, and puts her stake against his chest.

SPIKE: Are you gonna do it that way?

BUFFYBOT: (grinning) No. She grabs the neck of his t-shirt and rips it open as Spike grins. Then she puts the stake against his bare chest.

BUFFYBOT: This way.

SPIKE: (raises his eyebrows) You can't do it.

BUFFYBOT: I could never do it. (drops the stake) I'm helpless against you, you fiend. Spike shoves her off him.

BUFFYBOT: (smiling) Oh! She rolls aside onto the floor and lands on her back. Spike lands on top of her, pinning her wrists down. He kisses her and she kisses him back.

SPIKE: (whispers) Buffy... He slides down her body as the camera stays on her face.

Cut to: Giles sitting on the sand in the middle of the circle of sticks. He has the book open and reads aloud in Swahili.

Cut to closer shot of his face as he continues to speak.

Cut to Buffy walking across the sand. We can hear Giles still reading aloud. The background music is a woman vocalizing. Buffy hears a growling noise and stops, looks to her left. We see a mountain lion sitting on the sand about thirty feet away.

BUFFY: Hello, kitty. The lion begins to walk and Buffy follows it. They go through a passageway made by two large outcroppings of rock. They come out on a large expanse of sandy desert dotted with small bushes or trees. Buffy goes over to a rock and sits on it, looking around.

BUFFY: I know this place.

Cut to: Tara closing a door. She turns away and we see there's a vial in her hand. She walks away from the door, into the room. We see Xander behind a counter: it's his apartment. He comes out from behind the counter.

TARA: Okay. Warning spell's all set.

XANDER: So that's it? We're all protected up for the night? They walk farther into the room. We see Anya sitting on one sofa in the background. Dawn sits on another, reading.

TARA: Well, i-it's probably not as good as Willow could do. She's a natural with magic. In just the time I've known her, she's already blown right past me.

XANDER: So, when the whiz kid gets back from chem lab, can you have her ... you know, bulk up the spell a little? If you want, maybe, while Anya and I go do a quick patrol?

ANYA: I don't see why we have to patrol just 'cause Buffy's away. (gets up, walks over to them) I'd rather stay home and watch television. Dawn watches Anya go past her. Shot of a pair of earrings(?) on the side table next to the sofa that Anya just vacated.

TARA: (OS) Oh yeah, Willow wants to watch this thing on the history channel tonight, (Dawn gets up, walks over to the table) Salem Witch Trial stuff, which is only gonna get her all upset.

ANYA: (OS) Oh, I was there, it really wasn't that bad. (Dawn picks up the earrings and puts them in her pocket) See, if you were really a witch, you could do a spell to escape.

Cut to a shot of the three in the foreground and Dawn in the background.

ANYA: ...so really it was only bad for the falsely accused, and, well, they never have a good time.

XANDER: No. Dawn turns from the table to face the others.

DAWN: So, guys, if this is a real slumber party, where's the pizza? As Dawn walks away from the table toward the others, the camera stays on the window behind her. We see one of Glory's demons looking in the window.

Cut to: Spike's crypt. Pan across the pillars and the armchair to find Spike and the Buffy Bot lying on the floor, on their sides. She lies in front with Spike behind her, his arm around her waist, both covered with a pink sheet. Spike's hair is all disarrayed and spikey.

BUFFYBOT: You're evil.

SPIKE: And that excites you?

BUFFYBOT: It excites me, it terrifies me ... I try so hard to resist you and I can't.

SPIKE: Yeah? (grins)

BUFFYBOT: Darn your sinister attraction.

SPIKE: (seriously) Are you afraid of me?

BUFFYBOT: (big smile) Yes.

SPIKE: (quietly) You know I can't lie to you.

BUFFYBOT: I think you can. I think you can if I let you, and I want to let you. I want you to bite me and devour me until there's no more.

SPIKE: (smiles) Like this? He bites her neck lightly.

BUFFYBOT: (smiling) Oh, Spike, devour me!

SPIKE: All right. He pulls her over on her back and gets on top of her.

BUFFYBOT: Spike, I can't help myself. I love you.

SPIKE: You're mine, Buffy.

BUFFYBOT: Should I start this program over?

SPIKE: Shh! (frowns) No programs. Don't use that word. Just be Buffy. She smiles.

Cut to: Willow and a bunch of other students coming out of a UC Sunnydale building, night.

WILLOW: It's got last week's notes too. Just get it back to me by Thursday. She's speaking to a male student to whom she is giving her notebook.

WILLOW: And, uh, don't write in it or, or, uh, put a coffee mug down on it, or anything. (The student walks offscreen) And, and, just don't spill. Okay. Oh, oh, and don't fold the page corners down. Bye! She continues walking, pauses as she approaches a pillar, continues. As she passes the pillar, one of Glory's demons comes out from behind it and follows her.

Cut to: Spike lying in his bed asleep. Pan across to the Buffy Bot standing next to the bed, putting on her jacket.

BUFFYBOT: Time to slay.

SPIKE: Yeah... (mumbling in his sleep) The bot picks up her stake and walks purposefully across the crypt.

BUFFYBOT: Vampires of the world, beware. Shot of Spike still sleeping. Blackout.

[SCENE_BREAK]

Act II

[SCENE_BREAK]

Fade in on the desert, night. Giles sits on the hood of his car, drinking from a thermos. He looks up at the sky, sighs.

Fade to Buffy still sitting on the rock. She hugs her arms and shivers, lets her head drop and her eyes close. There's a noise like an owl hooting. Buffy jerks awake, sighs.

Cut to: the Buffy-Bot walking through the graveyard, twirling her stake. Xander and Anya come around a corner.

BUFFYBOT: Hey there!

XANDER: Buffy!

BUFFYBOT: Xander! Shot of Xander from the bot's perspective. She has a display similar to that of April in "I Was Made..." Folders are labeled "Hard Drive," "Slaying," "Locate Spike," and "Make Spike Happy." Under "Make Spike Happy" are files labeled "kissing01," "kissing02," "positions01," "positions02," etc. up to "positions05" and "More." At the bottom is a readout that identifies Xander with attributes: friend carpenter dates Anya

BUFFYBOT: (OS) And ... The point of view shifts to Anya. Her attributes are: dates Xander likes money ex-demon

BUFFYBOT: (OS) Anya!

Cut to shot of the Buffy Bot's face.

BUFFYBOT: How is your money?

ANYA: (laughs in surprise) Fine. Thank you for asking. (smiles at Xander)

BUFFYBOT: (smiling) Isn't it a beautiful night for killing evil things?

XANDER: I guess.

ANYA: You're back very early.

XANDER: Yeah, how was the whole vision-quest experience?

BUFFYBOT: I don't understand that question. But thank you for asking. Xander looks confused.

BUFFYBOT: You're my friend, and a carpenter.

XANDER: Are you all right? You're all...

SPIKE: (OS) Hey! Wait up! Spike comes running up.

BUFFYBOT: (happily) Spike! (to Xander and Anya) It's Spike. And he's wearing a coat.

SPIKE: (panting) Yes. Uh ... hello all. The bot tries to take his hand but he pulls it away.

SPIKE: Uh, Buffy's back early, I see. Lots of patrolling all around tonight, then, is it? The bot takes his arm and he pretends it hurts, pulls it away.

SPIKE: Ow! Hey. Give a fella a break there, Slayer. She smiles and tries to walk closer to him but he moves away, going closer to Xander and Anya.

SPIKE: Uh, I'm glad you're all here, uh, 'cause, uh, 'cause ... the place is crawling with vamps tonight. Uh, tons of 'em. I, uh, think we oughta split up.

XANDER: We haven't seen any vamps, are you sure there's... They hear a noise and all look to the side. Three vamps come around a corner.

ANYA: You're right.

SPIKE: Yep, guess so. The vamps rush at them. The BuffyBot kicks one and he falls back. Spike engages the second vamp while Xander and Anya take the third. The bot fights like Buffy. Anya circles around with her stake while Xander exchanges blows with the vamp. Spike kicks his.

BUFFYBOT: Spike, be careful! The bot kicks her vamp backward. Shot of two of Glory's demons watching the action from afar. Spike grabs his vamp by the arm and hits him in the back. The third vamp has Xander on the ground and Anya runs behind him. Xander gets his feet on the vamp's chest and shoves him back, right at Anya, who stakes him. The bot punches her vamp several times and he goes down. Spike is still struggling with his foe.

BUFFYBOT: No, get away from him. Shot of the two demons still watching. The bot stakes her vamp. Spike has his vamp kneeling on the ground. The bot tosses her stake to Spike, who catches it and stakes the last vamp. Anya helps Xander up. Spike and the BuffyBot come over to them.

SPIKE: I think that was probably the big action for the night. You two can toddle on home if you want.

XANDER: Uh ... Buffy?

BUFFYBOT: (smiling) Yes. Spike and I will do it alone. You guys head home. Xander looks suspicious, but he and Anya leave anyway. Spike and the bot watch them go. The bot frowns and wiggles her shoulders. Spike comes around in front of her.

BUFFYBOT: Hmm. I don't understand this. I-I did the slaying. I should be...

SPIKE: (leering) Satisfied?

BUFFYBOT: (nods, pouts) But I'm not. I-I'm all ... (wiggles her shoulders) my skin is all hot. (Spike grinning) Do I look hot to you?

SPIKE: Always.

BUFFYBOT: (suggestively) You better feel me to make sure.

SPIKE: I can do that. They kiss.

Cut to Xander and Anya walking through the dark graveyard, out the front gates. They turn and start walking down the sidewalk.

ANYA: (coughs) I breathed in like a quart of vampire dust. That can't be good. (putting her stake away in a coat pocket)

XANDER: I wish Giles told us they were back from the desert. I wish I knew what went on there.

ANYA: Oh, you know, Slayer-Watcher stuff. Probably some silly ritual with an enchanted prairie dog or something.

XANDER: (shakes head) Whatever it was, I think she's still a little spacy.

ANYA: (shrugs) She fought okay.

XANDER: Yeah. (stops walking) Hey, she never asked about Dawn.

ANYA: That's true.

XANDER: Something's wrong. Moaning noises. Xander and Anya look back at the graveyard. Shot of something blurry, impossible to see through the leaves of bushes that separate the graveyard from the street.

XANDER: (softly) I hear something. He gestures to Anya to be quiet as they move toward the bushes. Shot of Spike and the bot still in the graveyard. Spike lies on his back with the bot straddling him and rocking up and down. Her skirt covers their hips.

BUFFYBOT: Oh Spike. You're the big bad. Shot of Anya and Xander watching in amazement.

BUFFYBOT: (OS) You're the BIG bad!

Cut to Willow and Tara sitting on the sofa watching TV. Tara has her head on Willow's shoulder.

WILLOW: Those darn Salem judges. With their less-satanic-than-thou attitude.

TARA: Oh, honey, let's change it. The Discovery channel has koala bears. Willow clicks the remote. Xander and Anya burst in.

XANDER: Where's Dawn?

TARA: She, she's in the bedroom, she fell asleep.

XANDER: Good.

WILLOW: What's goin' on?

XANDER: Buffy's gone insane. (Anya nods)

WILLOW: What? What'd she do?

XANDER: Brace yourself. You're not gonna believe it.

TARA: Everyone, before we jump all over her, people do strange things when someone they love dies. When I lost my mother, I-I did some pretty dumb stuff, like lying to my family and staying out all night.

ANYA: Buffy's boinking Spike. Xander nods. Willow and Tara look surprised.

WILLOW: (pause) Oh ... well, Ta-Tara's right. Grief can be powerful, and we shouldn't judge-

TARA: What are you, kidding? She's nuts!

WILLOW: Well, it's not healthy, we're all agreeing there.

TARA: What can we do?

ANYA: Sometimes in the movies when they go crazy they slap 'em.

XANDER: I'm gonna go find her and talk to her. If she's losing it, we gotta help her before she gets herself hurt.

TARA: You aren't really gonna slap her, are you?

XANDER: No, but if I have to see her straddle Spike again, I will definitely knock myself unconscious. He turns and leaves. Anya shrugs to herself.

Cut to: Buffy asleep on a rock. There's a fire burning nearby. She sits up.

BUFFY: Hello? Who's there? On the other side of the fire, we see the First Slayer (see episode "Restless"). Buffy stares.

Cut to: Spike leaning against a pillar, smoking a cigarette. His hair is again messy. Rustling noises. Spike looks toward the door as the Buffy Bot rises from the floor in front of him. They both look over at the noise.

BUFFYBOT: Who's that?

SPIKE: (begins fastening his pants) Uh ... Down there. (points to the trapdoor leading down to the cavern) And, uh, no matter what, don't come out till I get you, okay?

BUFFYBOT: (nods) Okay. She walks over to the trapdoor and starts down. Spike looks toward the door as it opens and Xander comes in.

SPIKE: Oh, it's you.

XANDER: (closes door) I saw you ... in the cemetery with Buffy.

SPIKE: Yeah? (with bravado) Can't see how it's any business of yours.

XANDER: It is my business because Buffy's my friend .. and she's gone through some stuff lately that ... well, it's affected her, and you're taking advantage of her.

SPIKE: (sighs) She's upset about her mum. (takes a drag on his cigarette) And if she turns to me for comfort, well, I'm not gonna deny it to her. I'm not a monster.

XANDER: Yes. You are a monster. Vampires are monsters. They make monster movies about them.

SPIKE: (sarcastic) Well, yeah, you got me there. Xander grabs Spike by the front of his shirt.

XANDER: Spike, Buffy has lost of friends, and we love her very much, and we'll do whatever it takes to protect her. Now if that means killing you, then, well, that's just a bonus. The door opens and Jinx appears.

JINX: Gentlemen! (begins to enter, followed by more demons) I'm so sorry to intrude, but I wondered if I might beg a moment of your time.

SPIKE: (to Xander) Friends of yours? Jinx punches Xander in the stomach.

SPIKE: Guess not. Spike kicks Jinx. Xander struggles to his feet as the fight continues. Xander takes another kick to the chin and goes down again. Spike exchanges more blows until two of the demons get him by the arms. He head-butts another of them.

JINX: Tie his hands! Glory will want him restrained.

SPIKE: (struggling) Let me go!

JINX: Careful with him. She will want the key intact.

SPIKE: Key? Who's a key? I'm not the- Jinx stuffs something in Spike's mouth. Spike continues struggling and muffled yelling as the demons drag him out. Blackout.

[SCENE_BREAK]

Act III

[SCENE_BREAK]

Open on Buffy at the fireside. Throughout the ensuing scene we see the First Slayer through the flames, sometimes obscuring her entirely.

BUFFY: I know you. You're the first Slayer.

FIRST SLAYER: This is a form. I am the guide.

BUFFY: I have a few questions ... about being the Slayer. What about ... love? Not just boyfriend love.

FIRST SLAYER: You think you're losing your ability to love.

BUFFY: I-I didn't say that. (sighs) Yeah.

FIRST SLAYER: You're afraid that being the Slayer means losing your humanity.

BUFFY: Does it?

FIRST SLAYER: You are full of love. You love with all of your soul. It's brighter than the fire ... blinding. That's why you pull away from it.

BUFFY: (surprised) I'm full of love? I'm not losing it?

FIRST SLAYER: Only if you reject it. Love is pain, and the Slayer forges strength from pain. Love ... give ... forgive. Risk the pain. It is your nature. Love will bring you to your gift.

BUFFY: (pause) What?

Cut to the Buffy Bot climbing out of the underground cavern.

BUFFYBOT: Spike? (looks around) I waited like you said, but then I missed you. Spike? She walks off, not noticing Xander lying on the ground behind her.

Cut to: darkness, sound of someone knocking on a door.

WILLOW: Xander, did you- Willow opens the door to discover the Buffy Bot.

BUFFYBOT: Spike's gone!

WILLOW: Bu-Buffy. Uh, come in. Shh! It's late! Willow ushers the bot in, closes the door. They walk through the darkened living room.

WILLOW: Wait. Willow picks up a blanket from the floor, wraps it around herself, and she and the bot go out onto a balcony.

WILLOW: (whispers) We can talk out here. She closes the door quietly and goes over to the bot.

WILLOW: Did Xander find you? He-he was looking for you. Shot of Willow from the bot's perspective. Her attributes are: best friend gay (1999-present) witch good with computers

WILLOW: He hasn't come back. Anya sat up waiting.

BUFFYBOT: I don't know where Xander is. I haven't seen him. And when I came out of the tunnel, Spike was gone. I need to find him.

WILLOW: (winces) Um ... Buffy, this thing with Spike, i-i-it isn't true, is it? You didn't, you know, sleep with Spike?

BUFFYBOT: No. Willow smiles with relief.

BUFFYBOT: I had s*x with Spike. (Willow winces again) I'm sorry if it bothers you. You're my best friend.

WILLOW: I-I am. And I, I always will be, no matter what you do. I, I'm just trying to figure out why this happened, and I, I think with ... your mom and everything ... everyone was being all sympathetic, and, and making you feel weak. A-and Spike wasn't like that. So, just this one time, you just ... did something kinda ... crazy.

BUFFYBOT: (shakes head) It wasn't one time. It was lots of times. And lots of different ways. I could make sketches.

WILLOW: (disgusted) No! Buffy, there is something seriously wrong here! I ... (the bot looks confused) Okay, yeah, you've been with a vampire before, but Angel had a soul.

BUFFYBOT: Angel's lame. His hair grows straight up, and he's bloody stupid.

WILLOW: (confused) Okay ... look, I just wanna help you. Let me help you.

BUFFYBOT: You're my best friend.

WILLOW: Yeah. Again, I ... really am, but...

BUFFYBOT: You're recently gay.

WILLOW: Um... Behind them, the apartment lights up. They turn to see through the window that Xander has returned.

XANDER: (inside) Guys! Guys, wake up. Willow gives the bot one last confused look and goes inside. The bot follows. Tara sits up from sleeping on the floor. Anya gets up from sleeping on the sofa.

ANYA: Oh, Xander, I was scared, are you hurt? What happened?

XANDER: Guys ... demony kinds of guys. Buffy.

BUFFYBOT: Yes, that's me.

XANDER: The guys that work for Glory, you said they're kind of like hobbits with leprosy? Well this was a whole flock of hobbits, and they just grabbed Spike. I think they're taking him to Glory.

WILLOW: But he, he knows about Dawn. (Xander nods)

BUFFYBOT: We have to get him back. (Willow gives her a disturbed look)

XANDER: So how do we find him? Everyone looks at the bot. She looks uncertain.

BUFFYBOT: I fight with weapons.

XANDER: Yeah. I got nothin'. Let's hit your place, we'll stock up.

WILLOW: Uh, Tara, can you stay here a-and watch Dawn?

TARA: Of course. The others all walk off. Cut back to Buffy in the desert.

BUFFY: I-I'm sorry, I, I'm just a little confused. I'm full of love, which is nice, and ... love will lead me to my gift?

FIRST SLAYER: Yes.

BUFFY: I'm getting a gift? Or, or do you mean that, that I have a gift to give to someone else?

FIRST SLAYER: Death is your gift.

BUFFY: Death ...

FIRST SLAYER: Is your gift.

BUFFY: Okay, no. Death is not a gift. My mother just died. I know this. If I have to kill demons because it makes the world a better place, then I kill demons, but it's not a gift to anybody. The First Slayer is obscured by the flames, following the contours of her body.

FIRST SLAYER: Your question has been answered. She, as well as the fire, disappears. All that's left is cold gray rocks and sand. Buffy frowns in confusion.

Cut to: Glory's apartment. The door bursts open and the two main demons enter with Spike, whose hands are tied behind him. Glory gets up from the sofa where she was reading a magazine.

GLORY: What the hell is that, and why is his hair that color?

MURK: Stunning one, we believe he is...

MURK AND JINX: (unison) The key! Spike looks annoyed. Glory smiles.

GLORY: Really? That's fantabulous! (comes forward, shoves Murk away) And impossible. (walks in a circle around Spike) He can't be the key, because, see, the key ... has to be pure. She returns to Spike's front and sniffs at him.

GLORY: This is a vampire. (Spike looks at her in alarm) Lesson number one, vampires equal impure.

SPIKE: (a little scared) Yeah, damn right I'm impure. I'm as impure as the driven yellow snow. Let me go.

GLORY: You can't even brain-suck a vampire. (pats Spike on the chest) He's completely useless.

SPIKE: So, I'm just gonna let myself out. He tries to escape but Murk stops him.

JINX: But, your holiness, we observed the Slayer. She protected this one above all others. (Glory looks over his shoulder at Spike) She treated him as precious.

GLORY: Really? Precious-ss-ss? She pushes Jinx aside and goes over to Spike again.

GLORY: Let's take a peek at you, precious. (looks him up and down)

SPIKE: Sod off.

GLORY: Oh... (laughs) She punches Spike and he flies backward, crashes into the wall and slides down it. There's blood on his lip. Glory comes over and tilts his head up to look at him.

GLORY: He doesn't look very fancy to me. (grabs Spike by the lower lip and pulls him upright)

SPIKE: Hey, watch the lip!

GLORY: But if the Slayer protects him, maybe appearances are deceiving. She throws Spike onto her round bed. He lands on his back with his hands pinned underneath him. As he groans in pain, Glory climbs on top of him.

GLORY: Maybe there's something on the inside. She takes one finger, with its long red fingernail, and thrusts it into Spike's stomach. He screams in pain. Glory leans over him.

GLORY: Shhh. What do you know, precious? What can I dig out of you? Shot of Spike writhing in pain.

Cut to: Summers house, day. Xander opens the door for the Buffy Bot, who enters followed by Xander, Anya, and Willow. They walk into the living room.

BUFFYBOT: (smiling) This is my house.

XANDER: If we're gonna stop Spike from blabbing about Dawn, we're gonna need these. He goes to the big weapons chest and opens it.

ANYA: Ooh, the big guns. Xander takes out a weapon and gives it to Anya, takes out another one for himself.

ANYA: Saddling up. Shouldn't we have guns?

BUFFYBOT: Those are my weapons. Give me something big and sharp.

WILLOW: Um, Buffy, where do we go? Where should we look for Glory?

BUFFYBOT: She's a god. She wants the key.

XANDER: Yeah, so we should look... They all look at the bot.

BUFFYBOT: I don't know. Why are you all looking at me? (They all look confused)

XANDER: Okay, Buff, it's okay, you're right, you shouldn't have to know everything.

BUFFYBOT: We need to rescue Spike.

WILLOW: Um ... Buffy, I, I think you have more weapons upstairs. Why don't you go get those?

ANYA: And maybe change your clothes, you know, something more ... fighty.

BUFFYBOT: I can do that. I'll be right back. She turns with a smile and walks off.

XANDER: Okay, this has gone way too far. She thinks we're going to rescue Spike.

WILLOW: What *are* we gonna do?

XANDER: Find him, keep him from talking, whatever it takes.

ANYA: What do we do with Glory?

WILLOW: Whatever we do, we're gonna need Buffy's help.

XANDER: Then we're gonna have to talk to her.

WILLOW: Intervention time again?

XANDER: Yeah, 'cause what we need right now is a sane Buffy. The real Buffy enters, still wearing her brown pants and turtleneck, carrying her brown coat.

BUFFY: Whoa. Group hang time? The others look surprised.

WILLOW: Tha-that was quick.

BUFFY: Didn't seem like it to me. Death is my gift. (scoffs) The others are completely bemused.

XANDER: Buffy, we need to talk.

BUFFY: (alarmed) What's wrong? Is Dawn okay?

WILLOW: Dawn's fine.

XANDER: Buffy, we care about you, and we're worried about you. The way you're acting, the things you're doing-

ANYA: It's wrong.

WILLOW: Wait. This shouldn't be about blame.

BUFFY: Blame? There's blame now?

WILLOW: No, there's only love. And ... some fear.

ANYA: Which is kind of thrown by the you having s*x with Spike.

BUFFY: The ... who whating how with huh?

ANYA: Okay, that's denial. That usually comes before anger.

BUFFY: (angrily) I am not having s*x with Spike!

ANYA: Anger.

XANDER: No one is judging you. It's understandable. Spike is strong and mysterious and sort of compact but well-muscled.

BUFFY: (firmly) I am not having s*x with Spike! But I'm starting to think that you might be.

XANDER: (scoffs) Buffy, I saw you. Anya too. (Anya nods) We saw you and Spike ... (gestures vaguely) with the straddling. The Buffy Bot enters, looking offended.

BUFFYBOT: Spike's mine. Who's straddling Spike? She strides up next to Buffy, who stares at her in amazement.

BUFFY: Oh my god.

XANDER: (amazed) And so say all of us.

BUFFYBOT: Say, look at you. You look just like me! We're very pretty.

WILLOW: Two of them!

XANDER: Hey, I know this! They're both Buffy!

BUFFY: (annoyed at him) No, *she*'s a robot. She acts just like that girlfriend-bot that Warren guy made. You guys couldn't tell me apart from a robot?

BUFFYBOT: Oh, I don't think I'm a robot.

ANYA: She's very well done. The bot smiles at her.

XANDER: Spike must have had her built so he could program her t-

BUFFY: (horrified) Oh god.

WILLOW: Yikes. Imagine the things-

BUFFY: No! No, no imagining. Any of you.

XANDER: (raises his hand) Already got the visual.

BUFFYBOT: People. Friends of mine. You're forgetting the most important thing. Glory has Spike and she's going to harm him.

BUFFY: (softly) Glory has Spike?

XANDER: (nervous laugh) We were gonna bring that up.

ANYA: We were getting weapons.

BUFFY: Grab 'em. We're going now. I have to kill him.

WILLOW: We don't even know where to look.

BUFFY: (ponders) I know where to start.

Cut to: Glory's apartment. Spike's hands are tied together over his head. He stands in the middle of the room with the demons around the edges. His shirt is torn partly off and his facc is bloody.

GLORY: I have a riddle for you, precious. How is a vampire that won't talk ... like an apple? She walks up to Spike, grabs his hair and pulls his head back. We see that his chest is also bloody and has at least one ugly round wound from Glory's finger. With her free hand she has a dagger which she uses to cut his chest. Spike yells in pain.

GLORY: Think I can do you in one long strip?

SPIKE: (weakly) Enough. No more. I'll tell you who the sodding key is. Blackout.

[SCENE_BREAK]

Act IV

[SCENE_BREAK]

Open on a shot of Sunnydale, daylight. We see the hill atop which is Glory's apartment building. Pan down to the park below.

BUFFY: (OS) Glory's key-sniffing snake was about here when I killed it. It was headed back to her.

WILLOW: (OS) Do you think she lives around here? Pan down more to discover the Scooby gang with Giles and the Buffy Bot standing around. Most of them have weapons, including the bot.

XANDER: It's not a lot to go on. Closer shot of Buffy.

BUFFY: (shrugs) It's all we got.

GILES: (staring at the bot) Quite extraordinary really.

BUFFYBOT: Thank you. But I really think we should be listening to the other Buffy, Giles. (She pronounces it with a hard G like "guy") She's very smart and she's gonna help us save Spike.

GILES: Guy-les? (turns to address the real Buffy) Spike didn't even bother to program my name properly.

BUFFY: Listen, skirt girl, we are not going to save him. We're going to kill him. He knows who the key is, and there's no way he's not telling Glory.

BUFFYBOT: You're right. He's evil. (smiles) But you should see him naked. I mean really. Buffy grimaces in disgust.

BUFFY: Okay, guys, split up and spread out. Check the priciest-looking places first. Xander, you come with me. Willow, Anya, stick together, and Guy-les ... Giles- (Giles looks annoyed) you can watch ... it. Giles sighs, turns back to the bot. She gives him a huge grin.

Cut to: Glory holding a glass of water to Spike's lips. He drinks it all. Blood from the wound above his eye and the wound in his lip is trickling down his cheeks making him look quite battered.

GLORY: Is that better? (Spike coughs) Do you think you can try to talk again now? (Spike nods) Good. Because I'm tired of these games! She smashes the glass against Spike's face. It breaks into pieces.

GLORY: (turns away) "I need time, I need a drink," you're a very needy little bloodsucker, (sits on the sofa) and it's not very attractive. Spike glares at her.

GLORY: So start talkin'.

SPIKE: Yeah. Okay. The key. Here's the thing... Shot of Spike's hands with chains wrapped around them. He twists them around trying to loosen the chains.

SPIKE: It's that guy... on TV ... what's his name?

GLORY: (frowns) On the television?

SPIKE: That show ... the prize show ... where they guess what stuff cost?

MURK: The Price Is Right?

JINX: Oh, Bob Barker!

MURK: We will bring you Bob Barker! We will bring you the limp and beaten body of Bob Bark-

GLORY: (jumps up) It is not Bob Barker, scabby morons! The key is new to this world ... (turns back to face Spike) and Bob Barker is as old as grit. (smiles) The vampire ... is lying to me.

SPIKE: (giggles weakly) Yeah ... but it was fun. And guess what, bitch. (Shot of his hands still trying to twist free) I'm not telling you jack. You're never gonna get your sodding key, 'cause you might be strong, but in our world, you're an idiot.

GLORY: I am a god.

SPIKE: The god of what, bad home perms?

GLORY: Shut up! (takes a few steps toward him, pats her hair) I command you, shut up!

SPIKE: Yeah, okay, sorry, but I just had no idea that gods were such prancing lightweights. (Glory scoffs in disbelief) Mark my words, the Slayer ... is going to kick your skanky, lopsided ass (Glory checks out her ass in dismay) back to whatever place would take a (sizing her up) cheap, whorish, fashion victim ex-god like you. Glory spins around and delivers a spinning kick to Spike's chest. His hands break free and he goes flying backward, crashing through the apartment's door and into the hallway outside. He does a back-somersault and winds up on the floor against a chair.

SPIKE: (mutters) Good plan, Spike. Shot of Glory surrounded by her demons as the broken chain dangles in front of her.

GLORY: Bring him back.

Cut to: Spike bloodied and limping, dragging himself down the hall toward the elevator. The elevator doors close before he reaches them. One of Glory's demons comes around the corner and sees him.

DEMON: Here! Spike tries to catch the elevator doors before they fully close but he's too late. He lands on his knees and pries the doors open.

SPIKE: Oh, god. Several more demons come running around the corner. Spike leans over and lets himself fall down the elevator shaft. He lands on top of the elevator as Jinx appears in the doorway. Shot of the descending elevator with Spike sprawled on top of it. Jinx and another demon watch it go, then they turn away. Spike rolls over and opens the hatch in the elevator ceiling, falls through it and lands on the floor of the elevator.

Cut to the lobby of the building. The elevator doors open as the group of demons comes down the stairs. Spike gets slowly to his feet.

MURK: You do not insult Glory by escaping. Spike scowls at them. The front door opens and Buffy and Xander enter, carrying crossbows.

MURK: Slayer! Spike closes his eyes in relief and falls back against the elevator wall as Xander grabs one demon by his axe. Buffy shoots the demon with her crossbow. Murk kicks the crossbow out of Buffy's hands and punches her. Shot of Spike crumpling to the floor. Buffy kicks Murk down, ducks a punch from another demon and punches him, kicks a third. Xander uses the axe like a staff to hit another demon, fends him off and stabs a second demon with the axe, takes two punches from the first demon, ducks another punch and hits the demon on the chin with the axe handle. Buffy blocks kicks from Murk, kicks him in the face, ducks a punch, throws a punch that he blocks, punches him a few times. A demon grabs Xander around the neck from behind. Giles and the Buffy Bot enter as Buffy continues fighting Murk.

GILES: Buffy, we're here. Giles loads his crossbow as Buffy delivers a final kick that sends Murk flying. The bot looks over to the elevator.

BUFFYBOT: Spike! Spike's in there! Xander continues struggling with the demon who has him around the neck and is threatening him with a small dagger. Giles hits the demon with his crossbow and grabs him as Xander pulls free. Xander flies forward and lands on another demon on the floor. The bot goes over to the elevator and looks at Spike, who sits on the floor. He's bloody and bruised all over his face and upper chest. Xander punches the demon. Giles continues struggling with the other demon until it throws him to the floor and puts the crossbow to his throat.

GILES: Buffy! The Buffy Bot whirls around. The real Buffy whirls around. The bot throws her weapon aside and grabs the demon off Giles. The demon hits her with the crossbow and she flies against the elevator control panel. The real Buffy kicks the demon, then punches him and he goes down. The bot sinks to the floor looking surprised as tendrils of blue light flash across her body. Jinx and Murk run for the stairs. Buffy watches them go.

Cut to: Glory's apartment. Jinx and Murk attempt to explain to Glory what happened.

JINX: The Slayer was there.

MURK: A lethal fighter.

JINX: She seemed to be everywhere at once.

MURK: She had friends. With many weapons!

JINX: They may have been demons.

GLORY: (smiles) And where's my vampire? The demons look at each other and stammer. Shot of the broken door to the apartment. Sound of the demons screaming.

Cut to: shot of the Buffy Bot's back. A flap of skin is peeled back revealing her inner workings. Willow is poking at the machinery with tools. It makes sputtering noises. Pull out to reveal Tara standing next to Willow. They're in the magic shop. The bot is bent over the table.

TARA: (looks across the table) Is it weird? We see Buffy standing on the other side of the table. Dawn sits beside her.

BUFFY: Oh yeah. (walks closer) At least it's not a very good copy. (sits in the chair next to the bot) I mean... Buffy lays her head down on the table to look into the bot's face.

BUFFY: ...look at it.

WILLOW: Uh ... yeah. (looks up at Tara) The door opens and they look up as Xander and Giles enter. Buffy gets up.

BUFFY: What'd you guys do with Spike? And please let the story have a dusty ending.

XANDER: We dumped him back in his crypt.

GILES: Tried to find out if he'd ... told her anything, but he was too badly beaten to make much sense.

ANYA: Well, even if he told her, he'd just lie to us about it anyway, right?

BUFFY: Yeah, you can count on it. But I have to know. Now. If he did give us up, Dawn and I need to get out of town. I mean, she could be on her way right now. Dawn looks alarmed.

GILES: (to Dawn) But, uh, not to worry, you know, I'm sure we'll all be perfectly safe.

DAWN: (smiles) We're safe, right. And, uh, Spike built a robot Buffy to play checkers with. Buffy frowns, looks at Tara.

TARA: I-it sounded convincing when I thought it.

WILLOW: Hey! I-I think I found somethin'. Anya comes over and looks at the machinery.

ANYA: Uch! Looks very complicated in there. Personally, I'd rather look at guts.

WILLOW: (to Buffy) I found where she's broken. Some of these wires got fried extra crispy. (smiles) It's an easy fix. Buffy gives her an astonished look.

WILLOW: I mean ... not that I would.

XANDER: God, I feel ... kind of bad for the guy. Gets all whupped and his best toy gets taken away.

BUFFY: Xander. Please don't be suggesting what I'd have to kill you for suggesting.

XANDER: No, no, travesty, completely on board, it's just ... the guy was so thrashed. Buffy considers this.

Cut to: Spike lying in his crypt, daylight outside. His facial bruises have swelled up and his hair is still messy. The door slams open. The Buffy Bot stands there, no longer wearing her jacket but still in the pink blouse and skirt. She walks briskly over to the coffin where Spike's lying.

BUFFYBOT: Spike! You're covered in sexy wounds. Spike turns his head toward her. His eyes are swollen mostly shut.

SPIKE: Yeah. (starts to sit up) I feel real sexy. (slowly pulls himself upright) Where you been?

BUFFYBOT: I fell down and got confused. Willow fixed me. She's gay.

SPIKE: Will fixed you? I thought they'd melt you into scrap.

BUFFYBOT: They were confused too. (smiles) Do you wanna ravage me now?

SPIKE: (weakly) Give us a minute. Got some bones need mending.

BUFFYBOT: Why did you let that Glory hurt you?

SPIKE: She wanted to know who the key was.

BUFFYBOT: Oh, well, I can tell her, and then you'll-(turns to leave)

SPIKE: No! (coughs as she turns back) You can't ever. Glory never finds out.

BUFFYBOT: Why?

SPIKE: (quietly) 'Cause Buffy ... the other, not so pleasant Buffy ... anything happened to Dawn, it'd destroy her. I couldn't live, her bein' in that much pain. Let Glory kill me first. Nearly bloody did. She frowns slightly, then leans forward and kisses him softly on the lips. Spike starts to kiss her back, frowns and pulls away. Shot of her looking at him. Spike stares at her in amazement. She turns to walk away.

SPIKE: And my robot?

BUFFY: (turns back) The robot is gone. The robot was gross and obscene.

SPIKE: (lowers his head) It wasn't supposed to-

BUFFY: Don't. That ... thing, it ... it wasn't even real. She turns and takes a few more steps toward the door. Spike sits with his head hanging. Buffy pauses again but doesn't turn back to him.

BUFFY: What you did, for me, and Dawn ... that was real. Spike lifts his head to look at her. She turns to look at him over her shoulder.

BUFFY: I won't forget it. She walks out, closing the door behind her. Spike stares after her. Blackout.

Executive Producer: Joss Whedon.

Answer the Question based on above context. What do Glory's minions torture Spike for?[EOT]

  



đŸȘ From LongCamel-7b-32k: 



Glory's minions torture Spike for information about the key. They want to know who the key is, and they believe that Spike might know. 



##### Question answering from meeting minutes (out of finetune domain dataset)

😀 From you:



  (Expand to see the full context)

  

  

  Lynne Neagle AM: Good morning, everyone. Welcome to the Children, Young People and Education Committee. We've received no apologies, although Dawn Bowden is running late. I'll take this opportunity to welcome Dawn formally to the committee but also to place on record our thanks to John Griffiths for his service to the committee. Are there any declarations of interest, please? No. Okay. Item 2, then, this morning is a scrutiny session with a focus on higher and further education. I'm very

  ...

  Answer the Question based on above context. How did Eluned Morgan respond to whether wishing to see people have greater pay equality between schoolteachers and FE when discussing the pay dispute situation?

  

  

  

Lynne Neagle AM: Good morning, everyone. Welcome to the Children, Young People and Education Committee. We've received no apologies, although Dawn Bowden is running late. I'll take this opportunity to welcome Dawn formally to the committee but also to place on record our thanks to John Griffiths for his service to the committee. Are there any declarations of interest, please? No. Okay. Item 2, then, this morning is a scrutiny session with a focus on higher and further education. I'm very pleased to welcome Kirsty Williams, Cabinet Secretary for Education, Eluned Morgan, Minister for Welsh Language and Lifelong Learning, and Huw Morris, who is the group director of skills, higher education and lifelong learning. Thank you all for your attendance this morning. If you're okay with it, we'll go straight into questions. The first questions are from Suzy Davies.

Suzy Davies AM: Thank you, Chair. If we can just start with teacher training and teacher training for secondary school teachers in particular, obviously there's been what looks like a trend in recent years in filling the places for secondary school training. Obviously, this is at Welsh teacher training centres. Do you think there's still a problem recruiting teachers into the 300 priority places, or is there a trend where things are getting better?

Kirsty Williams AM: Thank you, Suzy. I think, for this year's intake, although we're in touch with our providers, we're not in a position to be able to give figures for this year's intake for a couple of months. But what we have seen over recent years is that we are only recruiting to about 65 per cent of those targets. So, there is still a job of work to do to understand and to respond to those needs. So, what we're doing is first of all making sure that our ITE provision is world class, so that, actually, Welsh centres are the place to go to train to be a teacher. You'll be aware that we've recently been through an accreditation process for new ITE provision that will start in the next academic year. We have looked at financial incentives. It's not the whole answer, I think, to these issues, but it's part of a mixture of things that we need to do. You'll be aware that, for priority subjects, with graduates with the very highest levels of qualifications, those financial incentives are now PS20,000 a year. We're also embarking on our first ever national ITE recruitment marketing exercise. We have initially done some work in the last year specifically targeting Welsh students in studying for priority subject degrees, e-mailing them, sending them materials to ask them to consider (1) becoming a teacher, and (2) crucially coming to do that training here in Wales. We are now part of a full national programme of ITE recruitment, giving people that idea that you can serve your nation and your community by training to be a teacher. So, there's a whole package of things we need to do. In January of this year I set up an advisory board on the recruitment and retention of teaching staff, and we are awaiting some reports from that advisory group on what they feel that we should do next.

Suzy Davies AM: Thank you for that answer. I can see there's a lot of activity, but what exactly is it responding to? Presumably, some research has been done about why people don't want to become teachers so that the answers you come up with are appropriate answers. I can't believe it's just about ITE, although this is very valuable, what you're talking about. Is there something that's running through our younger learners at the moment that makes them think that teaching isn't a profession they want to go into? Is that something that's happening just in Wales or is it happening elsewhere as well?

Kirsty Williams AM: No. I think what you will find is that this isn't a uniquely Welsh issue. I think they are suffering quite acute problems across the border, which proves to me that money isn't necessarily the entire answer, because, despite higher financial incentives to join ITE courses, they're not able to do that in England either. So, that proves to me--what the research does show--that it's not money alone that will get people onto these courses. Interestingly, I don't even think it's a UK problem. Recently, as you'll be aware via my written statement, I attended the Atlantic Rim Collaboratory, which is a system-to-system conference. If you talk to education systems in different parts of the world, the one common factor that we are all grappling with is teacher recruitment and retention. In the USA, they have seen a 40 per cent drop in the number of students training to be teachers. So, in the Californian system, significant teacher shortages, and in Oregon, Washington. I met with New York state--significant teacher recruitment and retention problems in New York state, and in Finland, Australia. So, this is a common issue across the globe, really. That's why we set up the advisory group under the chairmanship of Professor John Gardner--it's to understand what the issues are exactly that are preventing people or putting people off. One of the things that we have got strong performance in, and I think this is perhaps something that we're trying to follow up on, are employment-based routes into qualified teacher status--so, those are people who are training on the job. Those remain strong. There's high demand for those places, so much so that we've increased those places to 90 last year and 90 again this year, which says to me that--there's definitely a place for the traditional,'Take a year off, do a postgraduate certificate in education in a university for a year'--actually, that type of course suits some students but it might be preventing other people from pursuing a qualification in teaching, which is why, of course, from next year, we will have our unique part-time PGCE route into qualification. So, that allows people to perhaps combine some of their employment opportunities, so they can earn while they learn, or maybe they've got caring responsibilities that prevent them from going to do a full-time course. I think that will give us an alternative route that people can take to gain qualified teacher status and work in our schools. So, there's no one thing, I think, that we can do that will solve this issue. But it is an international issue, I agree with that.

Suzy Davies AM: Okay. Well, that's what I was after finding out, and, actually, what you've just said about the part-time PGCE is pretty interesting as well, because if you can bring your outside world experience into teaching, that's got to help, hasn't it?

Kirsty Williams AM: Can I just agree with you? I think that is really, really important--that we have a diversity in our teaching workforce. I think the different dynamic that brings to a school and the experience that brings to children is really, really valuable. I was up in the Deeside Sixth just last week, talking to the A-level chemistry teacher. She had been a teacher for a while, she'd gone into industry, worked in industry, and now had come back into teaching. She said that she felt that that made her a better educator and she could talk with knowledge and experience about the opportunities outside of teaching that the students in front of her could pursue. I'm very keen to increase the diversity in our teaching workforce and I'm very keen in looking at career changers, who perhaps have different life experience and work experience, coming into our teaching profession.

Suzy Davies AM: Thank you for that. Part of that diversity, of course--it would be great if you had more people interested in qualifying to teach through the medium of Welsh. Great aspirations; the trend's going the other way. No-one can solve this in 280 characters, I get that, but can you give us some indication about why you think this is proving still such an unattractive option when it's clear that there's a policy for this country to improve the number of Welsh speakers? You'd have thought there'd be a pretty good carrot for this.

Kirsty Williams AM: Sure. Again, data for recruitment for the 2018-19 cohort is not yet available and we are, as I said, keeping in touch with our ITE centres to keep a close eye on them. I think an important thing to recognise is that there is a difference between the number of people who are on courses where there is a specific designation that enables them to teach through the medium of Welsh and those people who have linguistic ability and Welsh ability but don't necessarily do a course that allows them. So, there is a difference. We do think that, for the 2016-17 cohort, there were an additional 130 qualifiers that, actually, were fluent in Welsh and who could have gone on to teach in Welsh-medium schools, didn't necessarily do a course that gave them that designation. But, clearly, we've got three academic years now to get to the targets that we've set ourselves. The evaluation of Welsh-medium provision in ITE reported at the end of last month, and the Minister and officials are busy working now to implement the recommendations of the report that was published, I think, on 28 September, to be able to move this agenda forward. Again, we've got new incentives, this year, both for people starting their course and then for teachers who complete their QTS after a year. So, we've added in new financial incentives this year to try and address some of those issues. But, clearly, these are ambitious targets and we will need to have a step change over the next three years if we're to meet them.

Suzy Davies AM: Thank you for that, Cabinet Secretary. Thank you for that answer. We're now talking about cohorts of students coming into PGCE and teaching degrees. If they're from Wales, they will have had Welsh as part of their education from day one, and we'll accept there are varying qualities in different parts of Wales, different attitudes towards it as well. But there isn't a single a person now who's been through Welsh education who can say they have no Welsh at all, unless they've moved into the system from, say, England very, very recently. What is being done within the teaching qualifications, including the degrees, to ensure that, at least in Welsh universities, those nascent Welsh language skills are at least kept alive, even though we're not talking necessarily about being at a level where people can teach through the medium? It's the age-old question: once the school gate closes, is that the end of their Welsh use? So, is there something--it won't be Donaldson, but in the teacher training qualifications--that is keeping this going and, hopefully, increasing the usability of the Welsh skills they have?

Kirsty Williams AM: Well, in terms of how we can encourage children who have got Welsh skills as a result of their education up to 16, how they can continue to use those skills and, potentially, use them in the workplace, I'm sure Eluned will want to talk about some of the work, for instance, in other, non-teaching sectors. But, with regard to ITE, you'll be aware that, in the evaluation report, as I said, that was published, the report comes forward with two options in how we could develop an intervention programme to support Welsh language skills amongst all primary and secondary ITE entrants. So, what we'll be doing now as a result of that report is that we'll be working very closely with our ITE centres to develop and agree upon minimum provision that constitutes those skill levels within ITE provision for all teachers.

Suzy Davies AM: Thank you.

Lynne Neagle AM: Llyr.

Llyr Gruffydd AM: You have your targets for 2021, in terms of numbers of teachers coming through the system, which is positive, although, clearly, the report or the review itself said that, actually, we need to double the numbers, really. But it's not just the trends that are going down; it's a cataclysmic drop, really. We've lost 24 per cent in the number of people over the last four or five years who are going into teacher training to study subjects that they could teach through the medium of Welsh. So, it's a huge turnaround that we're looking for, and I'm not getting the feeling that the level of ambition and the answers that you're giving here this morning reflect the level of action that's needed, really.

Kirsty Williams AM: Well, first of all, as I tried to illustrate to Suzy, the figures on their own tell one story, but there are additional people in the system with an ability to speak Welsh and to be able to use--

Llyr Gruffydd AM: I think it's 40 per cent of those who are currently in the system who don't--

Kirsty Williams AM: --the language and skills. And if we look at qualifiers of ITE courses in Wales by degree type, actually, we see a different trend--we see numbers going up. So, there are statistics and there are statistics. Depending on which ones you look at, it's quite a complex picture. And that's why we had the evaluation report. We understand and we know and acknowledge that there is more work to be done. That's why we have got the evaluation of provision in ITE and that's why we'll be taking that ambition forward. We know what we need to do. As I said, we're not sitting back and hoping that something miraculous will change things. We are pulling levers and putting in place plans to improve that situation.

Llyr Gruffydd AM: Thank you for that. Clearly, there are statistics and there are statistics, so could you just explain to us which statistics you've used for your targets for growth over the next three years?

Kirsty Williams AM: Well, that comes as a result of the work done for the 2050--

Llyr Gruffydd AM: Upon which baseline are you basing the increases that you're projecting?

Kirsty Williams AM: We're using the baseline of 2012-13. There has been a decline since then.

Llyr Gruffydd AM: That's the one I was using when I said'24 per cent reduction'.

Kirsty Williams AM: There has been a decline in those numbers. That's why, as I said, we're doing the work that we need to do to reverse that decline. In using those numbers, we also know that there are additional people in the system who are not captured in those figures and who do have the linguistic ability to use their language positively in school settings. So, what I'm saying is that that doesn't tell us the whole story, but I will be the first to admit that there is a significant job of work with our ITE providers to ensure that we will have the skilled professionals that we need to deliver on our ambitions, and I'm not hiding from that.

Eluned Morgan AM: Also, I just think it's worth saying that a lot of this is about building the confidence of those people who actually can speak Welsh, who are not teaching through the medium of Welsh, and to give them that support. First of all, we need to identify who these people are, so there is a job of work being undertaken now in terms of registration in particular--when people register, let's just make sure that we collect that kind of data.

Kirsty Williams AM: We don't even do that consistently at the moment. One of the recommendations of the report is that there is no consistent approach to understanding this baseline data and there's no consistent competency test that people start at the beginning of their course, so we need a national approach rather than leaving it to individual institutions.

Llyr Gruffydd AM: Have we missed any tricks, potentially, in terms of the reforms to accrediting ITE, for example, in terms of, maybe, strengthening aspects around the Welsh language and provision in that respect?

Kirsty Williams AM: No, I don't believe so. The accreditation process, which is independent of the Government--the accreditation process demands of our ITE providers that their provision will be able to meet the goals of our curriculum. Our curriculum is very clear about the equality of the language and the ability of our children, through all stages of their education journey, to be able to be bilingual children.

Llyr Gruffydd AM: So, that requirement, as far you're concerned, is there.

Kirsty Williams AM: Yes.

Llyr Gruffydd AM: Yes, okay. Diolch--thank you.

Lynne Neagle AM: Before I turn to Hefin, can I just clarify--? In answer to Suzy Davies, you said that 65 per cent of the places in Welsh training centres had been filled. Is that 65 per cent of the priority places?

Kirsty Williams AM: Priority places.

Lynne Neagle AM: Okay, thank you very much.

Kirsty Williams AM: Sixty-five per cent of the priority courses are being met.

Lynne Neagle AM: Lovely, thank you for clarifying that. Hefin.

Hefin David AM: The decision by the Education Workforce Council not to accredit the University of South Wales with the ability to deliver teacher training--what are your views and concerns about that?

Kirsty Williams AM: The process is independent of Government, and it would not be appropriate for me to comment on that, especially as I understand that there is an appeals process that may be being undertaken. What I would say is that from the very outset of our ITE reforms we have made it very clear that I expect very high standards in our ITE system, but the process is independent of this Government. I have confidence in the people who have been appointed by the EWC to undertake that process, but it is independent of me, and it's not appropriate for me to comment on that further.

Hefin David AM: I fully understand that and the need for distance for the EWC, but there'll be an impact on students and staff. Students, first of all: are you concerned that the reduction in providers might have an impact on students, and those students going through the second year at USW? Would you have concerns about that issue?

Kirsty Williams AM: In terms of the overall numbers, we will be looking to commission from those institutions that have been accredited the number of training places that our planning tool says that we need. So, in terms of an overall number of places, we will commission from those accredited units. Clearly, there will be a responsibility upon the University of South Wales to ensure that those students already in the system are able to complete their studies and their course, with the appropriate level of support and tuition to enable them to achieve their career aspirations and to graduate from that programme.

Hefin David AM: And what about the uncertainty for staff, or would you say that's an issue for the university itself?

Kirsty Williams AM: These are autonomous bodies. They have to act accordingly, in compliance with any employment law or any statutory responsibilities that they would have as an employer. That's not a matter for me; that is a matter for the institution that is an autonomous body.

Hefin David AM: But I would be surprised if you weren't keeping an eye on this, given that it has been a key provider. Are you aware of when the appeal decision will be known?

Kirsty Williams AM: My understanding is that the appeals process is ongoing, and next month, perhaps. But as I said, this is a process that is independent of Government--

Hefin David AM: But it will have an impact for what you do.

Kirsty Williams AM: It will potentially change the nature of the people from whom we commission places, but as I said, I do not have any concerns that we will not be in a position to commission the appropriate number of training places that we will need as a result of our planning.

Lynne Neagle AM: Okay, thank you. Suzy on this--mindful of what the Minister said about it being an independent decision.

Suzy Davies AM: It's not directly about USW; it's about the geographic spread of provision. I wonder if you could just give us a snapshot of what that looks like, and whether you think--certainly for PGCE or postgrad courses, anyway--that if they're not accessible geographically and we've got students who already have three years'worth of debt, they're not going to be looking to, necessarily, live away from home for a fourth year, and may want to study nearer home. Has there been any research done on the access to these postgrad courses, about where people are coming from and whether that's had an impact on the fact that some of these places haven't been filled?

Kirsty Williams AM: Currently, with our current providers, there is a significant geographical spread. There are centres here in the south-east, there are centres in the south-west, in mid Wales, and in north Wales. Obviously, accessibility is an issue for us. We do think that, for some students, accessibility is an issue, and of course that's why we are responding with our part-time PGCE route, which actually will be location neutral, because you will be able to study that as a distance learner, and so you will be able to remain in your community and undertake that course. So, that's part of the attractiveness, I believe, of offering that to people. So, if geographical disadvantage is stopping somebody from pursuing a career aspiration to qualify as a teacher, our new part-time PGCE, as I said, will allow them to do that.

Suzy Davies AM: Okay. Thanks, Chair.

Lynne Neagle AM: Okay, thank you. We're going to move on now to talk about reform and reconfiguration of the post-16 education sector. Janet Finch-Saunders.

Janet Finch-Saunders AM: Thank you. Good morning. There are some encouraging provisional signs regarding the demand for part-time undergraduate study for the first year of Diamond, but the PS12. 5 million reduction Higher Education Funding Council for Wales is having to make this academic year has potentially placed the funding for part-time provision under pressure. Is there a danger that, without maintaining and growing this funding, Welsh Government will undermine the Diamond reforms and increase the cost of part-time courses?

Kirsty Williams AM: Let's be absolutely clear what this Government has done for part-time students. We are unique, Janet: unique in the UK and, I believe, unique in Europe, in the parity of the support that is available for full-time and part-time students. So, Welsh part-timers have something that they do not get if they are in England or if they're in Scotland. It's too early to have definitive figures for the impact of Diamond on the number of people who are undertaking part-time study. I don't want to get into trouble by not having that verified data, and I know Members get testy with me for anecdotal evidence, but I can tell you this: there is one provider that is reporting at this moment a 40 per cent increase in the number of students that are registered to start part-time study with them this year, as compared to last year, and that reflects really, really well, compared to the onward downward trend that we see across the border for part-time. What this means, for us as a nation, is that people are able to take this opportunity to upskill themselves and to be able to develop their qualifications and to be able to move themselves up career ladders, and I think that's such an important economic factor for us. So, rather than feeling doom and gloom about the prospects for the part-time sector, the early indications, at least, show that the Diamond reforms are leading to an increase in demand and, more importantly, an increase in uptake--students taking advantage of that system to go away and study.

Janet Finch-Saunders AM: Thank you. Is the Welsh Government able to reassure the committee that its ambitions for the post-compulsory education and training reforms are still in line with the original Hazelkorn recommendations, and go beyond the Labour manifesto commitment of simply replacing HEFCW with a new funding body for HE and FE?

Kirsty Williams AM: Okay. So, you will be aware, Janet, that the agreement between myself and the First Minister that brought me into the Government and the Government's programme state very clearly about our desire to pursue the recommendations of the Hazelkorn report. I hope, by the end of this week, we will have published the responses to the technical consultation, and we will continue to move forward. And I would argue, certainly, that the reforms that we are intending to implement do go beyond just simply a body that replaces HEFCW and joins in FE. It's a much wider remit to the potential new commission. And, as I said, I believe we've had in the region of about 450 responses to the technical consultation and I'm pleased to say that there remains a consensus--we will always have some arguments about the details--but there remains a consensus on the direction of travel that we are pursuing. A summary of the consultation responses will be available to Members and will be published by the end of the week.

Lynne Neagle AM: Thank you.

Janet Finch-Saunders AM: Okay. Is the Welsh Government still committed to introducing the PCET Bill before the end of the fifth Assembly, and are you confident this will happen?

Kirsty Williams AM: Well, I'm absolutely determined that we will get the PCET legislation on the floor. It's a substantial piece of work, as you've just alluded to. This goes just beyond abolishing a single body. So, it is a substantial piece of work, but I believe that we are on track to be able to do that by the end of this term. But it's a big piece of work.

Lynne Neagle AM: Llyr, on this.

Llyr Gruffydd AM: Can I just pick up on that? I mean, it is going to be a big job, and, clearly, there's a strong focus on creating the commission and putting the structures in place, but, of course, one of the drivers is that we want to effect a cultural change in the way that people perceive post-16 education. This thing about parity of esteem and all that kind of agenda. And a key part of this process, therefore, is the vision that people are waiting for. When are we going to see this coming forward? Because I think we're putting structures in place, so there's a big discussion about the technical stuff, but I feel there's a bit of a vacuum in terms of the vision.

Kirsty Williams AM: Well, I would disagree with you, Llyr, because--

Llyr Gruffydd AM: Right, okay. Well, maybe you should have come to the cross-party group on further education last night.

Kirsty Williams AM: Well, I would disagree with you because, of course, the technical consultation has followed what we had last year, which was a consultation on the vision, on what we needed to do to bring the sector together beyond just HE and FE, to the inclusion of sixth forms; work-based learning providers; apprenticeships; and bringing all of that together under one body. I believe that that gives us an opportunity to have better strategic planning; to help us prevent duplication; to help us bridge gaps that are not available for learners at the moment. It will, hopefully--. My vision is that it will promote collaboration between institutions rather than simply having the market-based process that we see in other places where there's competition rather than collaboration. I want to see it strengthen links between schools, FE and HE, strengthen links between schools and employers and business, to make sure that we've got better information and advice services so that young people know what their pathways are and can make really informed choices about what's best for them, to help them make them. So, I think: we've done the vision, we're now doing the technical consultation, that will be published by the end of the week, and we'll move forward with our overarching vision that Hazelkorn elaborated and that we are now taking forward.

Llyr Gruffydd AM: So, you would be very concerned if FE institutions were saying that we really need to see the vision, that that's the next step, that we really need to understand the vision.

Kirsty Williams AM: But, I've met--. As I said, I was with one of our excellent FE leaders just at the end of last week; it wasn't raised with me then. I do understand that there are concerns from the FE sector about will the vision be realised. I think there's a shared understanding of the vision, but I understand and I do see some nervousness about, actually, in the end, will this just be HEFCW by another name, and, the opportunity for FE, will this be realised in this new body? We need to keep ensuring that, as we go forward and develop the policy, and as we develop, eventually, the legislation, that that parity of esteem and that true equality across all parts of the sector is realised.

Lynne Neagle AM: Okay, thank you very much. Our next questions are from Michelle Brown.

Michelle Brown AM: Good morning, Cabinet Secretary; good morning, Minister. Your paper to the committee says that there's a need for more analysis and research into the outcomes for learners from different backgrounds. At the same time, Welsh universities have declared PS104 million towards equality and opportunity activity for 2018. If you don't have the analysis, how can you be sure that the investment that's being made by the Welsh universities is actually going to have a positive outcome in the right places and lead to better outcomes for underrepresented groups?

Kirsty Williams AM: Okay. Well, of course, that would be one of the duties of the new commission set up as a result of our post-compulsory education and training reforms that I would anticipate. The universities are required, under the Higher Education (Wales) Act 2015, to produce fee and access statements, and the PS104 million that they have to take off their fees to be able to promote this work--those fee and access plans have to be signed off by the Higher Education Funding Council for Wales as being robust and truly promoting equality of opportunity. They're also there to promote access and the opportunities for people to aspire to higher education. We are looking at--. It's quite early days, still, for that new regulatory regime to come through, so we ask HEFCW, when I meet with HEFCW, about the adequacy of those plans. Equity is an important part of my approach to higher education. That's why we're introducing the Diamond reforms--so that those from the poorest backgrounds can be adequately financially supported and are not put off from going to a university. And we're also looking--. I would envisage under PCET a better mechanism of tracking destinations for learners. So, for instance, in the FE sector, we're introducing new joint monitoring for outcomes for sixth-form learners and FE learners, because we've never tracked them in the same way. So, we're introducing that now so that we can see the destinations for those two sectors, but the PCET reforms give us an opportunity to do that right across the board. Huw, is there anything else I need to add?

Huw Morris: Well, I'd just reinforce the point the Cabinet Secretary made about the fee and access plans being the vehicle through which we get universities to specify what they're going to do, and the funding council tracks that. To make sure that we're doing that in a full and appropriate manner, periodically, we ask for that system to be reviewed. I think it was in 2017 that the Wales Institute of Social and Economic Research, Data and Methods--the research arm of Cardiff University--reviewed the system and looked at how widening access was being promoted by different institutions and whether that was working in all parts of Wales. The report from that group was considered by one of the sub-committees in HEFCW and they are revising the process as a consequence. So, I think we can be confident that there are ambitious targets that are monitored, and, periodically, the system as a whole is reviewed.

Michelle Brown AM: Can you tell us what sort of research and data the universities are basing those access plans on? I assume they'll all have slightly different methods--I appreciate that--but can you give us any idea of how they actually formulate these access plans?

Huw Morris: So, there are data collected across the UK by a body called the Higher Education Statistics Agency. They produce detailed breakdowns, along with UCAS, of where applicants come from, which institutions did they study at, what courses, what their particular characteristics are, including their socioeconomic status, and that data is then analysed at a UK level and in Wales, through HEFCW and its agents, to track what's happening at different institutions at different stages, not just in terms of who's applying and who gets access, but who progresses and what happens to people once they've graduated.

Michelle Brown AM: So, there is already data there. I'm just wondering how that data that's already there differs from the research and analysis that you were talking about in your paper. They must be different, then. What specific analysis and research were you referring to in your paper?

Kirsty Williams AM: We use the HESA--. It is HESA, isn't it?

Huw Morris: Yes.

Kirsty Williams AM: That's shorthand--the HESA data, and institutions use that. We also then use WISERD and other organisations to supplement that piece of work. I think there is a challenge to some of this going forward. So, the Office for Students in England now is having some discussions about access to HESA data. This is a source of real concern to me, that Welsh institutions may not be able to have the ready access to that data because of changes the OfS may be making. So, we supplement where we think that there's value to be added in additional breakdowns, or in additional slicing of data and understanding of what is motivating people to come forward.

Huw Morris: And to give you a specific example of that as it applies in north Wales--. So, take a university like Wrexham Glyndwr University; they have quite a large intake of mature students. The data that's collected and analysed at a UK level tends to look at people who are going into university at a young age, not a mature profile. So, some of the analysis that we do in Wales--indeed, the deliberations of the sub-committee that I spoke about earlier--is about how do we make sure that those differences in Wales are reflected in the data and reflected in the targets that are set.

Michelle Brown AM: Okay.

Lynne Neagle AM: Okay, thank you. The next questions are from Hefin David.

Hefin David AM: Cabinet Secretary, are you in favour of more university mergers?

Kirsty Williams AM: I wouldn't use the word'agnostic', but what I'm in favour of is a healthy, strong and sustainable HE sector. If individual institutions wish to collaborate or, indeed, go further to a formal merger then, obviously, that is a matter for them. We're not pursuing or urging a policy of mergers, but, if individual institutions feel that is of benefit to them and their students, obviously, we would have an interest in that and making sure that they were robust plans, but that's a matter for individual institutions.

Hefin David AM: But HEFCW are pushing it.

Kirsty Williams AM: Well, again, what HEFCW are interested in is a sustainable HE sector that is strong but, as I said, I do not have a burning desire or a set policy to try and pursue mergers.

Hefin David AM: Okay. That's a little bit of a contrast with your predecessors, then.

Kirsty Williams AM: Well, that's a matter for them.

Hefin David AM: Okay. The reason I say it is because I was kind of on the inside when Cardiff Metropolitan University was under pressure from the then Minister to merge with the University of Glamorgan and Newport. It was a very difficult time for staff and, indeed, for students. You had the University and College Union and the Minister pushing it; the vice-chancellor of Cardiff Met at the time very much against it. So, do you think that it's really--? You're agnostic, but do you think perhaps it's not worth the disruption that can occur to staff and students?

Kirsty Williams AM: As I said, Hefin, I have no formal policy for reconfiguration or mergers. That's not to say I don't believe in collaboration between institutions. Going back to the issue of ITE, a very interesting programme came forward from Cardiff Met and Cardiff University for their ITE provision. So, I'm all for universities and institutions working together, but there's no formal policy. These are autonomous institutions. If they see that there is an advantage--I would hope for the student first, and, if we put the student at the front of this process, then we would obviously have an interest in that and making sure that that was the right thing to do. But, certainly, there is no pressure from us as a Government to pursue an agenda of mergers.

Hefin David AM: Just to be clear, then, that's likely to be a policy for the foreseeable future as well; you're not going to change that view.

Kirsty Williams AM: I have no intentions at this stage, but'Events, dear boy'. [Laughter. ] You know, sometimes there may be a situation that I cannot foresee at this moment that would necessitate, for the benefit of students, the benefit of Wales, a merger. So, never say never, but, at this point in time, I do not foresee us changing that policy.

Lynne Neagle AM: Julie on this.

Julie Morgan AM: Yes, just looking back at that time, which I remember very vividly--

Hefin David AM: So do I.

Julie Morgan AM: I had many meetings with Cardiff Met. Do you feel there has been any disadvantage to Cardiff Met because that merger didn't go ahead?

Kirsty Williams AM: I, personally, am not aware of any disadvantage to Cardiff Met, but I would recognise--I would absolutely recognise--for staff and students caught up in those deliberations and those issues, then that would have had a personal impact on them. In terms of the institution going forward, I'm not aware that they are currently struggling with any disadvantage from that discussion. And, as I said, I'm really heartened by some of the really interesting collaborative work that Cardiff Met are interested in doing, and new partnerships and new collaborations between institutions, whether that be Cardiff Uni or local colleges, and I think that's to be welcomed.

Julie Morgan AM: So, following on from what Hefin said, was it worth all the fuss?

Kirsty Williams AM: Well, look, as it's turned out, we have a strong institution in Cardiff Met, and I think, rather than looking at the past, we need to look at the future. But, of course, there was some reconfiguration and we need to understand any lessons that arose out of reconfiguration, and HEFCW are currently doing some work, actually, to look at reconfiguration, the experience of reconfiguration that did happen, and were benefits realised and what are the lessons that can be learned from that process. So, they are doing a piece of work to reflect, and that will, perhaps, help inform us as we go forward.

Lynne Neagle AM: Okay, Hefin.

Hefin David AM: I'd just say--Julie Morgan was one of our heroes at the time, I've got to say.

Eluned Morgan AM: She always is.

Hefin David AM: And still is. If I turn that on its head and have a look at University of South Wales, one of the concerns I'm getting from former colleagues and staff is that the Newport aspect--because it was a merger between Newport and the University of Glamorgan--has been somewhat denuded by the merger, and the amount of activity in the new Newport campus and elsewhere in Newport has been reduced by the merger. Are you aware of those concerns that staff may have?

Kirsty Williams AM: As I said, it's not for me to second-guess the judgment of previous Ministers who pursued--

Hefin David AM: But it's happening now, I mean.

Kirsty Williams AM: --a particular policy agenda. With regard to Newport, we are aware of concerns. Obviously, one campus closed completely, and there are concerns about the level of activity at the new campus. And we continue to discuss with the University of South Wales and the local FE college what offer is available to the local population, but also the wider contribution that that institution can make to the rest of Wales, and we continue to have conversations with both the college and the university about utilisation of the facilities in Newport and opportunities that could be made available in Newport.

Hefin David AM: That's interesting, because that's the first time I've heard it confirmed from the Government that those concerns that have been raised by former staff and colleagues in Newport are actually echoed by yourself, then.

Kirsty Williams AM: Well, as I said, we're aware of them. We take our time to listen to people. When people raise issues with us, we take them seriously. Clearly, going back to the point that I believe Suzy made about geographical coverage, we want to make sure that FE and HE opportunities are available for people throughout Wales, and we continue to work with providers in that area to explore what can be done to enhance the opportunities.

Hefin David AM: And, from a financial point of view, they had PS25 million for the merger. Are you satisfied that's value for money, and, at this point in the 10-year plan, that things are going as they should, with incomes being squeezed across the sector?

Kirsty Williams AM: Yes. I mean, it's difficult, isn't it, to second-guess what would have happened, what might have happened, if the merger hadn't gone ahead, around the financial stability and sustainability of an institution. How do you prove that, if that hadn't happened, something worse or something better might have happened? It's difficult to do that and to second-guess those judgments, but, as I've said, what I am interested in--. And I can't change that decision that was made by a previous Minister--it wasn't my decision--but what I can do is to ensure that any lessons learnt, any evaluation of that particular set of circumstances, can be looked at and can help inform future policy, which is why HEFCW is doing the piece of work. When that's published, you and I will be in a better position to understand whether the aspirations of that particular merger were realised, not realised, and if we were in that situation again, could we do it better next time?

Hefin David AM: Okay, so you'll reflect on that later. At this point in time, you don't have any concerns about the long-term sustainability of the University of South Wales.

Kirsty Williams AM: No, not at this point.

Lynne Neagle AM: Okay, thank you. Janet.

Janet Finch-Saunders AM: Thank you. The Welsh Government's draft outline budget for 2019 states that it will continue to provide PS20 million to further and higher education in 2019-20. Can you outline how this will be allocated between HE and FE and if conditions will be attached to the funding?

Kirsty Williams AM: Janet, you will have to wait until the end of the month, when the detailed, main expenditure group by main expenditure group lines of the budget are published, otherwise I will be stealing the finance Minister's thunder. There is a process by which the Welsh Government's budget is dealt with, and those details will emerge later on this month.

Lynne Neagle AM: Okay, thank you.

Kirsty Williams AM: But can I just say on conditions--? You will be aware that there are conditions attached to Government spend, both in the FE sector and in the HE sector. Those budgets will be subject to those existing arrangements; so, for instance, in the HE sector, the remit letter to HEFCW.

Lynne Neagle AM: Thank you. We're--

Llyr Gruffydd AM: Can I just pick up on funding, generally? Sorry. Because, we did talk about HEFCW and part-time funding earlier, and I'm not sure that we addressed the issue of this PS12. 5 million cut in a specific budget line from HEFCW, because what they've done, if I understand correctly, is that they've put four priorities into one budget line, which includes part-time teaching, and cut that budget line by PS12. 5 million. Are you not concerned that that'll have an impact on part-time teaching, given that it's such a success story that you're proud of?

Kirsty Williams AM: HEFCW have to take cognisance of the remit letter, but then, ultimately, they are free to allocate resources as they see fit. What will drive part-time provision is the students taking it up, and universities responding to that desire and that need within their institutions. So, at this moment, I don't have any concerns.

Lynne Neagle AM: Okay, thank you. We're going to move on now to look at the parity of esteem between academic and vocational post-16 education. The first question is from Michelle.

Michelle Brown AM: Thank you, Chair. Welsh Government wants to achieve parity of esteem between academic and vocational education, and I think that's a very laudable aim. Higher apprenticeships are a key part of this, but Estyn's recent inspection found that only four providers from 17 were achieving good outcomes for learners. What action do you propose to take about this, to make sure that those learners have much better outcomes across the board?

Eluned Morgan AM: First of all, just to make it clear that that is very much our intention. I think we have got work to do to make sure that we do reach that parity of esteem, but let's be clear that, in relation to these higher level apprenticeships, we were concerned that, actually, we weren't doing as well, perhaps, as we should be, which is why we commissioned Estyn to look at this specifically, and what it was that we were doing well, and what we needed to improve on. One of the things that we found is that we are doing very well in relation to foundation courses in terms of attainment--we've got 83 per cent attainment levels--but if you look at that at higher level apprenticeships, then we've got 77 per cent, so what is going wrong there? But, also, it's worth underlining the fact that, actually, we're still miles ahead of England, who are only reaching levels of about 61 per cent. So, we're already doing much better than England, but we're ambitious, and we want to make sure that if we are serious about this parity of esteem, how do we get there if we're not offering the kind of quality that we'd like to see in those higher level apprenticeships? So, some of the recommendations in that report, we'll be taking up. We want to increase the number of new employers and mentors within the system. I think we're also very keen to make sure that people don't repeat learning that they've already done. That's a danger and it takes up too much time. So, there are lots of these recommendations that now we'll set in motion, and I think the important thing for us then is to understand that, in relation to who's doing well and who's not doing well in the FE sector, the bulk of where that finance goes is actually doing quite well. It's pushing some of the private sector providers where we need to actually make sure that the quality is where we want it to be, and is, very importantly, matching the needs of employers. So, we've constantly got to be looking at the courses: are they responding to the needs of the market and what employers are looking for? And that means revising the offer sometimes in terms of the courses.

Michelle Brown AM: Where are the difficulties arising--? You refer to difficulties arising with the private providers. What are those difficulties?

Eluned Morgan AM: Well, some of it is about, perhaps, not giving the kind of guidance that we'd like them to give in-house. So, they're perhaps not doing the kind of on-the-job work that we'd like them to do. So, I think it's making sure that, when they're in the workplace, they are still being pushed to attain those levels. But I think it's clear that what we need to do is to also listen to what the advisory board that we've set up in relation to apprenticeships is also asking us, and we've got the Confederation of British Industry advising us on that as well.

Michelle Brown AM: Do you have a service level agreement with the private providers?

Eluned Morgan AM: Yes. I mean, the whole thing is under a tender procedure, obviously, and we will be revising that soon. There'll be a new apprenticeship procurement process that we'll be undergoing and starting to look at that process next year. So, there's an opportunity there for us to drive change in the system.

Michelle Brown AM: Would you be willing to share the targets under the SLA with the committee?

Eluned Morgan AM: Well, I think the--. I can't see that there'd be a problem with that, so I'm sure we could do that, but I think the way to make people move, quite often, is through making sure that you put the finances where they need to be, and then they're likely to shift. And, so, I think, in responding to this Estyn report, we can then build that into the next framework.

Michelle Brown AM: Okay, thank you.

Lynne Neagle AM: Thank you. Julie.

Julie Morgan AM: Yes, thank you. Right, I wanted to ask about the investment. If we're going to get parity of esteem, we've got to, probably, get more investment in. Could you say why there isn't more investment in degree, and there doesn't seem to be any investment in Master's-level apprenticeships at universities?

Eluned Morgan AM: Well, I think we've got to be careful that what happens is that the state doesn't pick up what, currently, people are prepared to pay for themselves, and, so, we've got to just make sure that that balance is right. So, what's happened in England, for example, is lots of people who were previously sitting Master of business administration courses, for example, are now switching into apprenticeship programmes. So, the system--it means that, previously, they were prepared to pay and now the state is paying or the employer's playing it in a slightly different way. So, I think we've got to just be aware about how--making sure that we don't get employers passing that responsibility that, actually, they have to upskill and to uptrain their workers and pass it back on to the state, whereas, actually, they need to step up as well as employers.

Julie Morgan AM: So, how are you going to judge that? How are you going to tell when, maybe, you should start putting some money in?

Eluned Morgan AM: Well, what we are doing is we're putting money into areas where we know there are skills shortages. So, we're focusing where we want those apprenticeships--and particularly at the higher level--to be. So, for example, we're looking at ICT; we're looking at construction. There are areas where we definitely need to be focusing our attention. So, that's where we'll be prioritising our funding, and that's what we're doing already.

Kirsty Williams AM: And that's for degree-level apprenticeships, not Master's. Just degree-level apprenticeships.

Julie Morgan AM: Right, thank you. And then, in terms of getting data, could you clarify the progress on developing outcome and destination data for higher apprenticeships? Your plan seems to suggest that data won't be available until 2020-21, at the end of the programme.

Eluned Morgan AM: And that's because we're only just starting on this, and it takes a long time for people to complete an apprenticeship. So, we won't have anybody going from the higher level apprenticeship into a destination until around 2021, so there's no point in measuring that until that point.

Julie Morgan AM: Right. And then, can you tell us when you'll publish Coleg Cymraeg Cenedlaethol's new operational plan to develop post-16 Welsh-medium provision, which was presented during July, and clarify if the plan requires additional funding?

Eluned Morgan AM: So, there is a report that was published in July, and we are waiting for the operational actions from that report to be published, probably within the next month. In terms of the implementation of that programme, some of that journey has already begun, so they're not waiting for the report to--. We're not waiting for the actions to be very clearly set out; actually, some of that work has been done. For example, already, there's been a review of the governance. We're also looking at the kind of research that needs to be done in that area. I think what's clear, and something that's very much driving me as the Welsh language Minister, is this understanding that you reach 16 and you get this fall off a cliff in terms of the number of people who actually speak and use Welsh. So, that's the thing that we need to address, and that's why moving now into that area of further education is crucial. And the report, written by Delyth Evans, did suggest that we do need to move into this area but, actually, there wasn't necessarily a need for further funding in that area. But it may be something that we will consider, but it's something that we'll try and absorb, perhaps, from within the department.

Kirsty Williams AM: A relatively modest amount of money was being made available this year to be able to kick-start some of this work, but we are mindful of the recommendations from the Evans report. So, future allocations will have to reflect the priorities within the implementation plan, and that's not just money that goes directly to y coleg, but also trying to get better alignment between other budget lines that support the Welsh language, and making sure that all budget lines that could help on this agenda are aligned to the recommendations and the implementation report.

Julie Morgan AM: Thank you.

Lynne Neagle AM: Suzy, on this.

Suzy Davies AM: Thank you. Just on coleg cenedlaethol's extended remit, have you had--? I haven't read the Evans report, but is there anything in there about the role of increased use of Welsh in adult community learning, for example? That's a further education pot, isn't it?

Eluned Morgan AM: Yes, it is, and we are very much in touch with adult community learning, and they are aware of the responsibilities they have in relation to the Welsh language. The issue, of course, with adult education, is that they have undergone some quite dramatic cuts.

Suzy Davies AM: Oh, yes, I don't mean the higher education sector that's taken over responsibility for this; I'm talking about community learning, low level, just having Welsh there. And, you know, as you mentioned yourself, post 16, people stop using it, so getting it in wherever you can as part of a strategy.

Eluned Morgan AM: Yes. They're aware of that responsibility and we--

Suzy Davies AM: They're free to choose partners, then, are they, to help them deliver that?

Eluned Morgan AM: And also to work with the new organisation that we've set up to promote the learning of Welsh, in particular, that is based in Carmarthen. So, that's something also that's being driven, and they're working closely, I think, on this.

Suzy Davies AM: Oh, great, thanks.

Kirsty Williams AM: There's lots of innovative practice. So, for instance, up in Wrexham, if a student has gone into the college to do A-levels, then they may decide to do those A-levels through the medium of English. But if they were previously in a Welsh-medium school, they are actively encouraged--indeed, persuaded--to do their Welsh baccalaureate through the medium of Welsh. So, they may be doing their A-levels in English, but if they've come from a Welsh-medium school, the college proactively seeks them out and makes sure that there is provision for them to do their Welsh bac qualification through the medium of Welsh, or, for instance, they are working very hard to form tutor groups. So, the tutor group--you might be doing your qualifications in English, but your tutor group will be a Welsh-medium tutor group, so that you are placed with other students who have come from Welsh-medium schools, and your tutor does all that tutor work through the medium of Welsh. So, there are other ways in which we can continue to help support children's linguistic ability, even if they have made a decision not to formally study their A-levels, for instance, or a course, through the medium of Welsh, and we're constantly looking at new ways. I think one particular aspect of the market--if we call it that word--that we're interested in are those students who've been to Welsh-medium schools, but at 16, perhaps, as I say, decide to go to a college. So, for instance, here in Cardiff, looking at childcare, and the opportunity--you know, there's a sector where we know we need a Welsh-medium workforce.

Suzy Davies AM: Yes, definitely.

Kirsty Williams AM: So, again, it's trying to target those children, and track them from a previous Welsh-medium education into a college, capturing their language skills, and finding ways in which they can use them. Merthyr college--there's a Welsh-medium champion in Merthyr college actively looking for children who have come from a Welsh-medium background, and they are allocated roles as Welsh-medium champions within the college, to promote. So, there are lots of innovative ways, especially in the FE sector, that they're looking to keep children's linguistic skills relevant, and they're using them, even if they make that decision to switch the language of their tuition.

Suzy Davies AM: Well, that's encouraging to hear. My question was about community learning, where it's essentially older people who perhaps are coming back to education in a way that wasn't as formal as it was before, if I can put it like that--so we don't lose sight of them as well. I've still got an abiding worry that there's a cohort in the middle here of people who we might lose, and maybe pass on bad attitudes towards the Welsh language to their children, despite the fact that those children now have huge opportunities to absorb Welsh language skills and make the most of them.

Lynne Neagle AM: Thank you. The next questions are from Llyr.

Llyr Gruffydd AM: Thank you, Chair. I'd like to ask about the regional skills partnership--partnerships, I should say--because they are having a direct influence now on courses and provision in FE, and with degree apprenticeships in universities as well. You, I believe, received the Graystone review back in March, so could you tell us a bit about what was in it, and what the recommendations are?

Eluned Morgan AM: So, some of the recommendations--. So, we wanted to review it because it's still relatively new. They've only been up and running about two or three years. He brought out some positives--things that we, I think, are doing well. I think they found that the voluntary partnership approach was quite effective. He did suggest that, actually, what they need to be producing is much shorter, sharper, focused reports. There was a suggestion of a lack of transparency, in terms of reporting from those regional skills partnerships, and that's obviously something now that we've undertaken to review. And there, I think, is an understanding that what we need to do now is to put in place those changes. But, on the whole, what we've done is to reinforce our commitment to the regional skills partnerships, and in particular now, through allocating PS10 million to further education colleges to respond directly to the wishes and the desires of the regional skills partnerships, you can see actually the status of the regional skills partnerships has just grown significantly. Because now there is an outcome as a result of their recommendations. So, you've seen quite a dramatic shift, I think, in the respect for regional skills partnerships over the past year.

Llyr Gruffydd AM: So, are there any recommendations in terms of governance as well--

Eluned Morgan AM: Yes.

Llyr Gruffydd AM: --because, clearly, there may have been concerns about the way that people ended up being members of the partnerships? You touched on transparency--clearly, that's an issue as well. So, just particularly on governance--.

Eluned Morgan AM: So, on governance, I think there was an understanding that that needs to be looked at again, and that we need to get the right people around the table. And what is interesting is, I think, because it was a voluntary approach, because now people can see an outcome, we're getting different people now really showing an interest in being a part of the regional skills partnerships. So, governance is something again we're going to be addressing and following up the recommendations on in that Graystone review. Is there anything to add to that?

Huw Morris: Well, I was just going to say, I don't see why we couldn't share the review with you.

Llyr Gruffydd AM: That was going to be my next question.

Huw Morris: That might be helpful. And we are actioning the recommendations from that review.

Llyr Gruffydd AM: The normal course of action would be, of course, to have published it and then to publish a Government response. Any reason why that wasn't done? I find it quite strange that you're saying that you're actually actioning the report and you still haven't published it. As a committee, we've not been party to any of that, really.

Eluned Morgan AM: I don't see why that can't be done. There's nothing to hide here, so why wouldn't we? We're the people who commissioned the report--

Llyr Gruffydd AM: I'm the one asking the questions. [Laughter. ] No, but you're right. I just find it strange. I just find it odd that that hasn't been published.

Eluned Morgan AM: Okay. Well, we'll certainly get a copy of that to you.

Llyr Gruffydd AM: Yes, okay.

Huw Morris: May I just say: we ask a number of people periodically to comment on what we do, and agencies we work with do the same. The status of those reports varies. I don't suppose we'd anticipated there would be the interest in this issue that there is and so, as the Minister said, there's no problem that I can see with that.

Llyr Gruffydd AM: And do you have a timeline in terms of by when you want to introduce some of the reforms that you're looking at now, because of this report?

Eluned Morgan AM: Some of them have already been introduced, so we're not waiting. The transparency issue that I think there was a bit of concern about--that's already been introduced. So, it's just about making sure that people understand what is going on in these regional skills partnerships. I think that's really important--

Llyr Gruffydd AM: Well, quite, given the influence that they have now. Yes, sure. Just another short one on the regional skills partnerships, really: how effective are they in supporting the planning and delivery of Welsh-medium provision in post-16?

Eluned Morgan AM: I think there's more we can do in relation to that. But I think there are aspects where we're already changing in respect of specific sectors. So, if you think about the care sector, for example, what we do need is more people who have those skills to speak through the medium of Welsh in the care sector. And, coming back to the point that was made earlier, what we're doing now is looking at the curriculum: to what extent can we include--? You don't have to do your whole course through the medium of Welsh, but there are aspects that would be very useful. So, those kind of things are being taken on board now in terms of the courses. One of the things that the Coleg Cymraeg Cenedlaethol are looking at is building the resources that will be needed in order to mainstream those into, in particular, those front-line service areas where we have a skills shortage.

Llyr Gruffydd AM: Okay. Diolch.

Lynne Neagle AM: Thank you. Cabinet Secretary, you know that this committee has taken a very keen interest in the emotional and mental health of our young people. In the summer, the English universities Minister made an announcement about the development of a new mental health charter. That followed some concerns about young people dying by suicide across the UK. Is Welsh Government expecting Welsh universities to sign up to that charter or are you planning to work on your own?

Kirsty Williams AM: Thank you for raising this. I think it's really important that whilst for many, many, many young people moving away from home and starting their degree course is an incredibly exciting time and something they look forward to hugely, it can bring significant stresses with it, especially for first-year students, who, as I said, are moving away, perhaps are suddenly responsible for finances in a way they've never been responsible for, for all the day-to-day living that perhaps they've relied on other people to assist them with. So, it can be quite a stressful time. So, it is right that we look at how we can support health and well-being for students, especially mental health and mental resilience. So, I very much welcome the work on the mental health charter, and HEFCW are engaged and keeping a very close eye on what's going on to see the opportunities for Welsh universities to participate in that. But this was on a recent agenda item that I had with HEFCW, and indeed with the vice-chancellors, when I met them last week, or the week before last. So, they are developing their own strategic approach to well-being and health for students, which will be underpinned by a co-created action plan with the universities themselves on supporting students with mental health problems in particular. So, the strategic approach and the action plan are being developed by HEFCW at the moment and HEFCW are also meeting with colleagues from England and Scotland to see the opportunities for a universal approach across the UK to supporting students. The universities, when I met with them recently, all shared a commitment to do better in this particular area. One, because it's the right thing to do, but, actually, stopping people from dropping out and not completing their courses obviously is of a financial benefit to the institution. So, it's actually the right thing to do for their students, they want to do it for that reason, but, actually, there is a strong financial underpinning to ensure that students complete their studies. So, it's looking at, again, each university looking at individual approaches of how better they can do that. But it's not just responding to students who become unwell, it's actually,'What can we do to in the campus to maintain good mental health?'So, rather than just trying to fix a problem once it's occurred, it's'What can we do?'And you'll be aware of individual institutions taking different approaches. It's not something that we dictate, but individual institutions--when they do exams, how work is assessed and marked and graded--are taking different steps to promote well-being, as well as then responding to situations where students become unwell. We do know that financial pressures can be a source of huge stress for students, so we are constantly working with the Student Loans Company to make sure that the services that they offer to people are as good as they can be, and that there are no unnecessary delays that, perhaps, put a student under pressure or give students worries about their financial situation. And I would argue our Diamond reforms, which allow students access to a living wage--for some students, completely by a grant, for some students, a combination of grant and loan, with no expectation at all that your parents will contribute, which is not the case in other places where there is an expectation of parental contribution--that actually, hopefully, addresses some of those financial worries that some students may have. But I am aware that if people are waiting for their grant or people are waiting for their payments, that can be a source of stress. So, ensuring that we have good performance by the Student Loans Company is crucial.

Lynne Neagle AM: Okay, thank you. And I'm sure the committee's very interested to hear the update on that. Are you able to give us any indication of timescale by which you'd expect HEFCW and the individual universities to actually have this work in place?

Kirsty Williams AM: I'm not sure, but I will write to the committee and let you know. In fact, we can probably provide, from Universities Wales and from the work that's going on centrally, a list of proposals that are being undertaken.

Lynne Neagle AM: Thank you very much. The next question is from Dawn Bowden.

Dawn Bowden AM: Thank you, Chair. I wanted to ask you about the pay dispute, and I know that you're not the employer, because I know that's going to be the first answer--

Kirsty Williams AM: You're right, that is the first answer. [Laughter. ] Well anticipated.

Dawn Bowden AM: But we are in a stalemate here and you clearly have an interest in making sure that this dispute is resolved quickly in the interest of the students and the reputation of the colleges et cetera, et cetera. I can see how this dispute has arisen. When we've seen the teachers'pay settlement, we've seen FE settlements in England and Scotland higher than what's on the table here. And I am concerned, and I do think this is where the Welsh Government does have a role, because I am concerned that the employers seem to be using the funding issue as the reason not to have a reasonable settlement with staff. So, they've walked away from the table, they've said,'One per cent, take it or leave it. Unless Welsh Government gives us any more money, that's the end of that.'And I'm really concerned about that, because this is potentially going to have a major impact on whether we can recruit and retain staff in FE colleges. And I look at the college in my constituency, Merthyr college--it's a tertiary college, they're providing A-level education across Merthyr and they're astounding results they've been getting as well. I'm coming round to the question in a moment. It's really: what more do you think you can do as a Government to try to get these parties back round the table and not allow the dispute to become a political football?

Eluned Morgan AM: Thanks very much for that. I think, first of all, you're absolutely right--this is about ColegauCymru's negotiation, but we are keeping a close eye on the situation. I think it's probably worth emphasising that the reason this has come about, or part of the reason, is because you've seen that pay settlement in relation to teachers'pay and we've had the consequential. So, sixth-form teachers are happy. The people actually providing the same teaching course in a different institution, you can understand why they may say,'Something needs to change here.'The problem here is that it's about that, actually, that falls to the Welsh Government. We don't have that. Or at least it falls to FE colleges to fund that, and it's up to them to come up with that proposal. We are keeping a close eye on things. I think it's fair to say that we'll wait until they get further along down the line, but we are extremely aware of the sensitivities of the situation.

Dawn Bowden AM: Thank you for that, Minister. When you say you're keeping a close eye on it, have you actually had conversations with ColegauCymru? Because I note what you just said there:'We'll keep an eye on it and wait and see what's happening.'Well, all the unions are currently consulting. One has already balloted for industrial action. We could have the other unions also balloting for industrial action. I mean, this isn't something we want in the FE sector, clearly, so is there anything more proactive that Government could actually be doing to try to bring a resolution to this dispute?

Eluned Morgan AM: Well, we are listening and speaking to ColegauCymru, and also we're aware of what the unions are saying as well. So, I think that's probably as far as we can go at this point. When they come to a conclusion, and when they come to us and say,'Look, this is the consequence and this will finish'--at this point, we have no idea where that settlement is likely to fall.

Dawn Bowden AM: Thank you, Chair.

Lynne Neagle AM: Thank you. Llyr.

Llyr Gruffydd AM: Yes, thank you. Yes, we wouldn't expect you to make an announcement on this, because it's happening outside of Government, but there is a principle here, isn't there, in terms of pay equality between schoolteachers and FE? So, would you not wish to see a situation where we do have greater equality in that respect?

Eluned Morgan AM: In relation to teaching, I think it's fair to say that we would wish to see pay equality in relation to teaching, yes.

Llyr Gruffydd AM: Okay, thank you. You emphasise'in relation to teaching'--my next question is that, of course, within FE establishments you have teaching staff and non-teaching staff, and if there was to be some sort of increase, then would you not expect all staff to have that?

Eluned Morgan AM: Well, let's see--that's up to ColegauCymru to negotiate and to discuss, so let's see what the outcomes are.

Llyr Gruffydd AM: Because some of the non-teaching staff are the lowest paid, as well, aren't they? So, you know--.

Eluned Morgan AM: Let's wait for the outcome of the negotiations. I think we are very aware of the situation. ColegauCymru are in that negotiation. We're aware of what the requests are from the trade union members, and we'll wait to see what they come up with before responding formally.

Llyr Gruffydd AM: Could I just briefly as well ask about pensions, because that's coming down the line, potentially, isn't it, and the impact that's going to have on FE? One college was saying it will cost them PS1 million if it happens next year. Are you thinking about any steps that you could take to support them, potentially, because obviously this is coming down the line, really, isn't it?

Eluned Morgan AM: Well, I think, already, we've got the situation in relation to teachers, and again what we've seen is the consequential and the UK Government honouring that. Again, what we don't have, necessarily, is that money coming down from the UK Government for us to be able to support it in the way that we might like to. It's early days on this, but it's something, again, we're keeping an eye on.

Llyr Gruffydd AM: The fundamental question, really, is: if the money doesn't come down the line from Westminster, are you in a position to underwrite that?

Eluned Morgan AM: Well, we'll wait until we see that situation arising, but we're aware that that is an issue that we're going to have to deal with in future.

Llyr Gruffydd AM: Diolch.

Lynne Neagle AM: In relation to the pay dispute, it's the committee's understanding that ColegauCymru's position is that, in order to meet a pay award that is commensurate with schoolteachers, an additional 3. 5 per cent or PS10. 1 million is needed. Are you aware of that being their position?

Eluned Morgan AM: We are aware of their position, yes.

Lynne Neagle AM: Okay, thank you. The final question is from Hefin David.

Hefin David AM: You will have had, Cabinet Secretary, a letter from Professor Colin Riordan on 26 September regarding essay mills, in which he refers to the other letter that was sent by him and 39 vice-chancellors regarding essay mills and the fact that it's legalised cheating. In the letter--it was actually to me--that was copied to you, he says:'We have requested the UK Government commission the QAA to publish a draft Bill by or before the beginning of the next parliamentary session. We've also requested the Department for Education give support to the establishment of a UK centre for academic integrity, which would research, analyse and combat academic misconduct. Any support that the Welsh Government can provide in this regard will also be appreciated, so I'm copying this letter to the Cabinet Secretary for Education.'Can you just give me your opinions on that, please?

Kirsty Williams AM: I think'legalised cheating'is a polite way of describing what goes on. My officials have been in touch with their counterparts in the UK Government to see if we can co-ordinate a UK approach, which I think is necessary. I don't think there's any merit in us trying to do this on our own; it would be pointless. I hope that we can agree a formal approach as quickly as possible, and I will take every opportunity--. We're trying to establish a meeting with the UK Minister for HE before Christmas, and I will take every opportunity that I can to ensure that we can take some very, very strong action in this regard. But it does have to be done at a UK level. I want people who attend our universities and who work hard to achieve the grades that they get not to be disadvantaged by people who look to find an easy way out and are not willing to put--. I think it undermines the individual effort of individual students who are doing the right things, as well as the integrity of our system. I'm proud of the quality of the system that we have in the Welsh HE sector, and I want that maintained. I hope that we can agree a UK approach to ending this practice.

Hefin David AM: Okay. And in addition to the specifics regarding the quality assurance agency and the proposed centre for academic integrity, let's be clear: what we're talking about it outlawing those websites that offer to write essays for cash.

Kirsty Williams AM: Yes. And quite often, very bad ones as well. [Laughter. ] My understanding is--

Hefin David AM: Well, they get through the system and they guarantee--. The websites, and I've experienced this, and I mentioned it in First Minister's questions--

Kirsty Williams AM: You did.

Hefin David AM: The websites say to you,'Unless you tell anyone, you won't get caught', and students are believing that. The new student grant system--some of that money will go to these websites.

Kirsty Williams AM: Absolutely, and, unlike you, I have no experience of this myself--

Hefin David AM: Well, I have experience of it. I've not done it, but I've experienced it. [Laughter. ]

Kirsty Williams AM: I'm so old, Hefin, that such internet sites didn't exist when I was a student. [Laughter. ] But, you know, I'm sure you listened to it too: a recent article, on a radio station, where, actually, it was an experiment just like you did--a student deliberately went through this process to expose, but, actually, what they got in return wasn't even very good. It was a particularly poor essay on the portrayal of women in Victorian literature, so they weren't even getting very good value for their money. [Laughter. ] But, clearly, this is a terrible and abhorrent practice in our system, and, as I said, I will do everything that I can to work with colleagues across the United Kingdom to find a solution to this. If I thought it would help if we did it on our own, we could do that, but it won't help if we act unilaterally. It has to be a UK approach.

Hefin David AM: And just--final question--with regard to the representations you've made, do you feel that the UK Government is open to this course of action?

Kirsty Williams AM: Well, officials are the ones who have had those direct, face-to-face conversations, rather than me. I hope to do that when I meet the Minister, hopefully before Christmas. Huw, would you like to comment?

Huw Morris: We haven't had anything formally, but I understand from what I've heard in England that there is an interest to do something. Whether that will take the form of a Bill in the timescale you've outlined, I'm not sure, but as the Minister said, we'll be exploring that with officials through the ministerial meetings.

Hefin David AM: Okay, thank you.

Lynne Neagle AM: Okay, thank you. Are there any other questions from Members? No. Okay. Well, can I thank you all for attending and for answering all our questions? As usual, you'll have a transcript to check for accuracy following the meeting, but thank you very much for your time. Item 3, then, is papers to note. Paper to note 1 is a letter from the Cabinet Secretary for Education regarding eligibility criteria for free school meals. I'd like to return briefly to that when we go into private. Paper to note 2: a letter from the Minister for Children, Older People and Social Care on the Childcare Funding (Wales) Bill. Paper to note 3: also from that Minister, which is his response to the Constitutional and Legislative Affairs Committee on the Bill. And paper to note 4: also a letter from that Minister to the Finance Committee on the Bill. And the final paper to note is from Mind Cymru regarding the task and finish group on a whole-school approach to mental health, and I will update Members on that when we go into private. Happy to note those? Item 4, then: can I propose, in accordance with Standing Order 17. 42, that the committee resolves to meet in private for the remainder of the meeting? Are Members content? Thank you.

  



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Eluned Morgan responded to the question by saying that she would wish to see pay equality in relation to teaching, but she emphasized that it was up to ColegauCymru to negotiate and discuss the matter. She also mentioned that the Welsh Government is aware of the situation and is keeping an eye on it. 



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  Background Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau are among the smallest countries in the world. In fiscal year 2017, the three FASs had a combined resident population of approximately 175,000 (102,622 in Micronesia; 54,354 in the Marshall Islands; and 17,901 in Palau). Interior’s Office of Insular Affairs (OIA) has primary responsibility for monitoring and coordinating U.S. assistance to the FASs, and State is responsible for

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Background Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau are among the smallest countries in the world. In fiscal year 2017, the three FASs had a combined resident population of approximately 175,000 (102,622 in Micronesia; 54,354 in the Marshall Islands; and 17,901 in Palau). Interior’s Office of Insular Affairs (OIA) has primary responsibility for monitoring and coordinating U.S. assistance to the FASs, and State is responsible for government-to-government relations. The U.S. relationship with the FASs began when American forces liberated the islands from Japanese control near the end of World War II. In 1947, the United States entered into a trusteeship with the United Nations and became the administering authority over Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau. Voters approved the Constitution of the Federated States of Micronesia in 1978 and approved the Constitution of the Marshall Islands in 1979. Both Micronesia and the Marshall Islands remained subject to the authority of the United States until 1986, when a compact of free association went into effect between the United States and the two nations. The Palau constitution took effect in 1981, and Palau entered into a compact of free association with the United States in 1994. Micronesia and Marshall Islands became members of the United Nations in 1991, while Palau joined the organization in 1994. Compacts of Free Association Economic Assistance Provisions Under its compacts with Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau, the United States provided economic assistance that includes access to certain federal services and programs, among other things, for defined time periods. Economic assistance to Micronesia and the Marshall Islands. The 1986 compact of free association between the United States and Micronesia and the Marshall Islands, respectively, provided about $2.6 billion in funding for fiscal years 1987 through 2003. In 2003, the United States approved amended compacts of free association with the two countries. According to Interior, economic assistance under the amended compacts is projected to total $3.6 billion, including payments for compact sector grants and trust fund contributions for both countries in fiscal years 2004 through 2023. Funding under the original compact and amended compacts has been provided to Micronesia and the Marshall Islands through Interior. Economic assistance to Palau. The compact of free association between the United States and Palau entered into force in 1994 and provided $574 million in funding through Interior for fiscal years 1995 through 2009 for assistance to the government, contributions to a trust fund, construction of a road, and federal services. In September 2010, the United States and Palau signed an agreement that would, among other things, provide for additional assistance to Palau, including contributions to its trust fund. The 2010 agreement and subsequent amendments entered into force in September 2018. According to Interior, direct assistance to Palau under the compact will total $229 million for fiscal years 2010 through 2024, including $105 million that Congress provided in annual appropriations in fiscal years 2010 through 2017. Defense-Related Provisions Under the compacts, the United States has responsibility for defense and security matters in, and relating to, each of the FASs, and subsidiary agreements pursuant to the compacts provide for U.S. military use and operating rights in these countries. According to the Department of Defense, the compacts have enabled it to maintain a critical strategic position in the Indo–Pacific region. The compact with the Marshall Islands also provided for a separate agreement that constituted a full and final settlement of all claims resulting from U.S. nuclear tests conducted in the Marshall Islands during the period 1946 through 1958. In addition, a subsidiary agreement with the Marshall Islands secured the United States’ access to the U.S. military facilities on Kwajalein Atoll, which are used for missile testing and space tracking activities. Migration-Related Provisions Under the compacts, eligible FAS citizens are exempt from certain visa and labor certification requirements of the Immigration and Nationality Act as amended. The migration provisions of the compacts allow eligible FAS citizens to enter the United States (including all states, territories, and possessions) and to lawfully work and reside in the United States indefinitely. The implementing legislation for the 1986 compact with Micronesia and the Marshall Islands stated that it was not Congress’s intent to cause any adverse consequences for U.S. territories and commonwealths and the state of Hawaii. The legislation further declared that Congress would act sympathetically and expeditiously to redress any adverse consequences. In addition, the legislation authorized compensation to be appropriated for these areas that might experience increased demands on their educational and social services from compact migrants from Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau. The legislation required the President to report and make recommendations annually to Congress regarding adverse consequences resulting from the compact and provide statistics on compact migration. In November 2000, Congress made the submission of annual reports about the impact of compact migration in affected jurisdictions—that is, compact impact reports—optional and shifted the responsibility for preparing these reports from the President to the governors of Hawaii and the territories. Legislative Actions to Address Compact Impact In December 2003, Congress took steps in the amended compacts’ implementing legislation to address compact impact in designated U.S. areas. The legislation restated Congress’s intent not to cause any adverse consequences for the areas defined as affected jurisdictions— Hawaii, Guam, the CNMI, and American Samoa. In addition, the legislation authorized and appropriated funding for compact impact grants to the affected jurisdictions, to be allocated on the basis of the proportion of compact migrants living in each jurisdiction. Further, the legislation required an enumeration of compact migrants to be undertaken at least every 5 years. The legislation also permitted affected jurisdictions to submit compact impact reports to the Secretary of the Interior. Compact Impact Grants to Affected Jurisdictions The implementing legislation for the amended compacts authorized and appropriated $30 million for each fiscal year from 2004 through 2023 for grants to the affected jurisdictions. According to the legislation, the grants are provided to aid in defraying costs incurred by these jurisdictions as a result of increased demand for services due to the residence of compact migrants. OIA reviews the affected jurisdictions’ annual proposals for the use of the funds and provides the funds to the jurisdictions as compact impact grants. The grants are to be used only for health, educational, social, or public safety services or for infrastructure related to such services. Figure 1 shows the locations of the FASs and the affected jurisdictions. Required Enumerations of Compact Migrants The implementing legislation for the amended compacts requires Interior to conduct an enumeration of compact migrants, which is to be supervised by the Census Bureau or another organization selected by Interior, at least every 5 years beginning in fiscal year 2003. On the basis of these enumerations, each affected jurisdiction is to receive a portion of the annual $30 million appropriation in proportion to the number of compact migrants living there. The legislation permits Interior to use up to $300,000, adjusted for inflation, of the annual appropriation for compact impact to conduct each enumeration. The amended compacts’ implementing legislation defines a compact migrant, for the purposes of the enumeration, as “a person, or their children under the age of 18, admitted or resident pursuant to [the compacts] who as of a date referenced in the most recently published enumeration is a resident of an affected jurisdiction.” Compact Migrant Eligibility for Selected Federal Programs Compact migrants have varying eligibility for certain U.S. federal government programs. Eligibility for some federal programs changed as a result of the 1996 Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act. For example, when the compacts were signed, FAS citizens were eligible for Medicaid; however, the act removed this eligibility. Table 1 shows compact migrants’ eligibility status for selected federal benefit programs as of November 2019. Compact Migrant Population Has Grown, with About Half Residing on U.S. Mainland Total Compact Migrant Population in U.S. Areas Grew by 68 Percent over 9 Years From 2009 to 2018, the number of compact migrants living in U.S. states and territories rose by an estimated 68 percent, from about 56,000 to about 94,000. In 2011, we reported that combined data from the Census Bureau’s 2005-2009 American Community Survey and 2008 enumeration showed an estimated 56,345 compact migrants living in U.S. areas. During the period 2013 to 2018, an estimated 94,399 compact migrants lived in U.S. areas, according to combined data from the Census Bureau’s 2013-2017 American Community Survey and 2018 required enumeration in Guam, the CNMI, and American Samoa. This estimate includes Micronesian and Marshallese citizens who entered the United States after 1986, Palauan citizens who entered the United States after 1994, and certain U.S.-born children younger than 18 years. About Half of All Compact Migrants Resided on U.S. Mainland in 2013-2018 Data from the 2013-2017 American Community Survey and the 2018 enumeration indicate that an estimated 50 percent of compact migrants lived on the U.S. mainland and an estimated 49 percent lived in the affected jurisdictions during this period: 26 percent in Hawaii, 20 percent in Guam, and 3 percent in the CNMI. This estimate indicates growth in the number of compact migrants on the U.S. mainland since 2011, when we reported that the Census Bureau estimated 58 percent of compact migrants lived in the affected jurisdictions. The Census Bureau estimated that 11 states in the U.S. mainland, in addition to three of the four affected jurisdictions—Hawaii, Guam, and the CNMI—had compact migrant populations of more than 1,000, according to the 2013-2017 American Community Survey and the 2018 enumeration (see fig. 2). Stakeholders Expressed Concerns about Undercounting of Compact Migrants Stakeholders we interviewed—including FAS embassy and consular officials, FAS community members, state government officials, and representatives of private sector and nonprofit organizations—expressed concerns about the Census Bureau’s prior estimates of compact migrants. Some Arkansas stakeholders cited other, higher estimates of the FAS population in their state. Moreover, some stakeholders said that compact migrant populations are apprehensive or distrustful about being formally counted through surveys or the census. Stakeholders also noted that some compact migrant communities have felt frustrated at having been encouraged to respond to surveys and be counted but not experiencing any benefit from these efforts, according to a nonprofit official and FAS community members. Marshallese consular officials said that they believed the 2010 census undercounted their citizens, noting that the Census Bureau did not employ any Marshallese surveyors in the Arkansas counties with Marshallese populations. Stakeholders also expressed concern about the decennial census to be conducted in 2020, which, like the 2010 decennial census, will collect information on race. Nonprofit organization officials whom we interviewed expressed concern that the 2020 census could result in an undercounting of compact migrants because of language barriers and compact migrants’ difficulty accessing the census form online. Arkansas health care and private sector representatives and the Marshallese consulate described plans to address barriers to obtaining a more accurate count of the population in the 2020 census. Hawaii is making a statewide effort to ensure that compact migrants are counted in the 2020 census, according to Hawaii state officials. According to Guam officials, an outreach effort in Guam has leveraged “trusted voices,” or parties known to compact migrant communities there, to communicate the importance of responding to the 2020 census. Census Data Provide Additional Information about Compact Migrants in the States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico Data from the American Community Survey showed an estimated 72,965 compact migrants living in the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico in 2013 through 2017. An estimated 31,425 compact migrants living in these areas (43 percent) were U.S. citizens. The remaining estimated 41,540 (57 percent) were not U.S. citizens. The U.S. citizens who were counted included naturalized citizens and minor-age U.S. citizen children of compact migrants, who would no longer be counted as compact migrants after reaching 18 years of age. An estimated 25,555 compact migrants living in these areas were born in Micronesia; 20,545 were born in the Marshall Islands; and 3,435 were born in Palau. These totals do not include compact migrants born in the FAS and living in Guam, the CNMI, or American Samoa, because the American Community Survey does not cover these territories. An estimated 27,735 compact migrants living in these areas who were 18 years and older (69 percent) were in the civilian labor force. Of those, 24,540 (89 percent) were employed and 3,195 (12 percent) were unemployed. An estimated 1,660 compact migrants living in these areas—4 percent of compact migrants 17 years and older—were on active duty in the U.S. military or had served on active duty in the past. For additional American Community Survey data on compact migrant demographics, see appendix IV. Reasons for Migration to U.S. Areas Vary Compact migrants move to U.S. areas for a range of reasons, including greater economic and educational opportunities, better access to health care, a desire to join family members in the United States, and a wish for greater personal freedom. In some communities we visited, stakeholders noted that FAS citizens had come to the United States for school or work before the compact with Micronesia and the Marshall Islands and the compact with Palau went into effect but that the compacts had opened the option of migration to a broader range of individuals. Economic opportunities. Compact migrants described moving to U.S. areas for better, more reliable jobs and higher wages. Having a better-paying job in the United States sometimes allows individuals to send remittances or consumer goods to family members living in an FAS. Other compact migrants move to U.S. areas to join the military. Educational opportunities. Compact migrant families often move to U.S. areas so that their children will have access to improved primary and secondary education, according to compact migrants. Some compact migrants travel to U.S. areas to attend college and choose to stay to work, including to pay off their student loans, according to consular officials and compact migrants. Health care access. Compact migrants sometimes migrate to U.S. areas to obtain medical treatment for themselves or family members, according to FAS community members and consular officials. Some medical procedures or treatments, such as dialysis or access to specialists, are not available in the FASs, according to federal and nonprofit officials. Family. Many compact migrants relocate to the United States to join family members and communities already living there, according to consular and nonprofit officials. Personal freedom. Some compact migrants said that they have more personal, social, and cultural freedom in the United States than in their more traditional home country. Changes in the natural environment in the FASs have also prompted migration from those areas, according to FAS representatives. Depleted food resources and effects of climate change—including more-frequent typhoons, coral reef bleaching, and depletion of fishing stocks—have contributed to migration, according to an FAS official. In addition, members of Marshallese communities cited rising sea levels and frequent tidal flooding as reasons for migrating from the Marshall Islands to U.S. areas. Some Marshallese community members also noted that the legacy of U.S. nuclear testing had contributed to their decision or need to move. Compact migrants cited varied reasons for choosing to migrate to specific locations. For example, representatives of FAS communities in Guam and the CNMI noted the FASs’ closer proximity to those territories than to the U.S. mainland as well as the similarity of Guam’s and the CNMI’s island cultures to those of their home countries. Also, some compact migrants in Arkansas and Oregon cited the lower cost of living and a perception of less discrimination or greater safety there than in Hawaii. Marshallese community members often migrate to Arkansas for jobs in the poultry industry. Consular officials noted that, because of comparatively lower wages and fewer housing options in the FASs, returning to their countries after living in U.S. areas can be difficult for some compact migrants. Some compact migrants said that it is also difficult to find a good job in their home countries without family or political connections. According to an FAS official, some compact migrants retire to their home countries. However, several compact migrants we spoke with said they planned to stay in U.S. areas to be close to medical care or to children and grandchildren born there. Hawaii, Guam, and the CNMI Have Reported Compact Impact Costs and Received Annual Grants to Defray Them The affected jurisdictions of Hawaii, Guam, and the CNMI reported estimated compact impact costs (i.e., costs incurred as a result of increased demands on public services from compact migrants) that totaled $3.2 billion during the period fiscal years 2004 through 2018 and increased over time for Hawaii and Guam. Interior has provided compact impact grants totaling more than $30 million annually to the affected jurisdictions, each of which uses the funds differently. In October 2019, Census discovered an error in the 2013 and 2018 enumerations, which Interior had used to determine the distribution of compact impact grant funds and which resulted in misallocation of these funds for fiscal years 2015 through 2020. In February 2020, Interior officials told us that the department had developed a modified plan for compact impact grants in fiscal years 2021 through 2023 that, according to the officials, is intended to correct the misallocation. Hawaii’s and Guam’s Reported Compact Impact Costs Have Risen, while the CNMI’s Have Varied Hawaii, Guam, and the CNMI reported a total of $3.2 billion in estimated compact impact costs during the period fiscal years 2004 through 2018, with estimated annual costs increasing over time for Hawaii and Guam and fluctuating for the CNMI. Hawaii reported $1.8 billion in total estimated compact impact costs. Hawaii’s reported annual costs increased from $55 million in fiscal year 2004 to $198 million in fiscal year 2018. Guam reported $1.2 billion in total estimated compact impact costs. Guam’s reported annual costs increased from $33 million in fiscal year 2004 to $147 million in fiscal year 2017. The CNMI reported $116 million in total estimated compact impact costs. The CNMI’s reported annual costs amounted to $10 million in both fiscal year 2004 and fiscal year 2018 but fluctuated over time, ranging from a low of about $3 million in fiscal year 2011 to a high of $12 million in fiscal year 2014. For a summary of the estimated compact impact costs reported by the three affected jurisdictions, see figure 3. For more details of their compact impact reporting, see appendix V. The three affected jurisdictions reported compact impact costs for education, health, public safety, and social services (see table 2). As the table shows, the highest total costs in fiscal year 2017 were for education and health services. In November 2011, we found that Interior’s reporting to Congress on compact impact had been limited, and we identified weaknesses in existing compact impact reporting. We found that some jurisdictions did not accurately define compact migrants, account for federal funding that supplemented local expenditures, or include revenue received from compact migrants. Our November 2011 report recommended that the Secretary of the Interior disseminate guidelines to the affected jurisdictions that adequately addressed concepts essential to producing reliable impact estimates and that the Secretary call for the use of these guidelines in developing compact impact reports. Although Interior developed a draft of compact impact reporting guidelines in 2014, it had not disseminated such guidelines to the affected jurisdictions as of February 2020. In 2019, Interior awarded the Guam government a technical assistance grant for $280,000 to conduct a cost-benefit analysis to determine compact migrants’ economic contribution to the local economy. The effort will reportedly also seek to address weaknesses and methodological concerns related to compact impact costs calculated by Hawaii, Guam, and the CNMI. Guam officials said that the grant application was prepared in response to our prior critique of their compact impact estimation methodology. The grant was awarded to the Guam Bureau of Statistics and Plans, which contracted with University of Guam consultants to carry out the work beginning in October 2019. Guam officials expected this work to result in two reports—one identifying economic contributions by compact migrants (expected September 2021) and another proposing a methodology for determining compact impact costs (expected August 2022). Hawaii, Guam, and the CNMI Have Received Grants to Defray Compact Impact Costs Compact Impact Grant Funding During fiscal years 2004 through 2019, Hawaii, Guam, and the CNMI received a combined total of approximately $509 million in compact impact grant funding. This total includes (1) annual compact impact grant funding allocated from $30 million authorized and appropriated in the amended compacts’ implementing legislation and (2) additional compact impact grant funding allocated from annual appropriations. In fiscal years 2004 through 2019, Interior made annual allocations of the $30 million of compact impact grant funds authorized and appropriated in the amended compacts’ implementing legislation. Interior provided these allocations as compact impact grants to each affected jurisdiction to defray their costs due to the residence of compact migrants. Interior used the four most recent enumerations— conducted in 2003, 2008, 2013, and 2018—as the basis for these annual allocations. Since fiscal year 2012, Interior has provided additional compact impact grant funding to the affected jurisdictions from annual appropriations. This additional funding has ranged from approximately $3 million to $5 million per year since fiscal year 2012. Interior has allocated the additional funding on the basis of the 2013 and 2018 enumerations. Table 3 shows the total amounts that Hawaii, Guam, and the CNMI received as compact impact grant funding in fiscal years 2004 through 2019. Affected jurisdictions use their compact impact grant funding in varying ways and report on their use of the funds to Interior. Hawaii allocates the entirety of its compact impact grant—approximately $13 million annually since fiscal year 2015—to the state’s MedQuest division to defray costs of providing medical services to compact migrants. Guam has used some of its approximately $15 million of compact impact funding each year for new schools constructed through leasebacks (see fig. 4 for photos of several schools built by the Guam government with compact impact funds). The CNMI allocates its approximately $2 million of compact impact funding each year across the education, health care, public safety, and social service sectors. Hawaii, Guam, and CNMI officials have emphasized that compact impact funding does not fully compensate for the expenses associated with compact migration. For stakeholder suggestions related to compact impact funding and other issues, see appendix VII. Misallocation of Compact Impact Grant Funding in Fiscal Years 2015-2020 In October 2019, Census Bureau officials discovered an error in the 2013 and 2018 Census Bureau enumerations that caused inaccurate counts of compact migrants in Hawaii and, according to Interior officials, resulted in misallocation of compact impact funding for Hawaii, Guam, the CNMI, and American Samoa in fiscal years 2015 through 2020. Relative to the proportion of compact migrants in each jurisdiction, allocations to Hawaii were a total of $16.9 million lower than they would have been without the enumeration error while allocations to Guam, the CNMI, and American Samoa were higher than they would have been without the error. Table 4 summarizes the under- and overpayments of compact impact funding to each affected jurisdiction that, according to Interior officials, resulted from the enumeration error. The enumeration error was discovered in late October 2019, near the beginning of fiscal year 2020. As of February 2020, OIA officials had developed a modified planned allocation of compact impact funds for fiscal years 2021 to 2023. Beginning in fiscal year 2021, OIA plans to divide the $30 million of annual compact impact grant funding in fiscal years 2021 through 2023 using corrected base allocations from the updated 2018 enumeration from Census Bureau, according to an Interior preliminary assessment. The base allocations will be adjusted upward for Hawaii and downward for Guam, the CNMI, and American Samoa to correct for the erroneous payments in fiscal years 2015 through 2020. See table 5 for a comparison of the originally planned fiscal year 2020 allocation (based on the erroneous enumeration) and the revised allocation (based on the corrected enumeration) as well as the grant amounts that OIA proposed for fiscal years 2021 through 2023 to correct for the erroneous payments. Compact Migration Affects Government Programs, Workforces, and Societies The governments of some of the U.S. areas we visited identified effects of providing public education and health care services to compact migrants. Compact migration’s effects in U.S. areas we visited also include budgetary contributions from compact migrants’ payment of taxes and fees as well as budgetary costs of other government programs and services to compact migrants. Stakeholders in the U.S. areas additionally discussed the participation of compact migrants in those areas’ workforces and communities in terms of contributions and impacts of compact migration. U.S. Area Governments Identify Effects of Providing Programs and Services to Compact Migrants Education Children of compact migrants attending U.S. public primary and secondary schools sometimes receive additional or specialized services, such as support for English language learners, according to state and territorial officials. In the U.S. areas we visited, state and territorial departments and school districts have identified and counted compact migrant students by means of one or more criteria, including ethnicity, language, and place of birth. See table 6 for estimated numbers of compact migrant students in the states and territories we visited and the criteria that each state or territory used to count students as compact migrants. Compact migrants are eligible for in-state tuition at some U.S.-based colleges and universities, according to university, nonprofit, and state officials. For example, in Guam, compact migrants attending the University of Guam are eligible for in-state tuition. In Oregon, FAS citizens are eligible for in-state tuition after a 1-year residency period in the state, according to nonprofit officials. In Arkansas, Marshallese citizens are eligible for in-state tuition after a 3-year residency period in the state, according to state tuition policy and officials. Health Care States and territories have reported budget and program effects related to health care for compact migrants who are eligible for federal benefits as well as health care for individuals, including compact migrants, who are ineligible for federal benefits and lack private insurance or other means of payment. U.S. area governments sought to enable compact migrants’ access to health care in several ways, including extending access to the federal Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP) or Medicaid and leveraging federal health insurance tax credits and other federal funding. According to some U.S. area government officials, some of these programs are provided specifically because compact migrants are ineligible for certain programs at the federal level. Extended Access to Children’s Health Insurance Program or Medicaid The Children’s Health Insurance Program Reauthorization Act of 2009 included an option for states to cover children younger than 21 years and pregnant women in both CHIP and Medicaid who are lawfully residing in the United States—a definition that includes compact migrants—and who are otherwise eligible under the state plan. Therefore, in some U.S. areas, non-U.S. citizen compact migrants who are children or pregnant may access federal health insurance coverage through CHIP or Medicaid. As of February 2020, 38 states and territories and the District of Columbia had extended such coverage to lawfully residing non–U.S. citizen pregnant women or children, including compact migrants, who met all other eligibility requirements (see fig. 5). According to Arkansas officials, their state’s decision to extend this coverage was sought in part to address unmet needs of compact migrants living in Arkansas. Subsidized Coverage in Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act Exchanges Compact migrants are eligible to purchase individual market health insurance plans through health insurance exchanges established under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA). Individuals purchasing coverage through the exchanges may be eligible, depending on their incomes, to receive financial assistance in the form of premium tax credits to offset the costs of their coverage. Premium tax credits, which are designed to reduce an eligible individual’s premium costs, may be either paid in advance on a monthly basis to an enrollee’s issuer (referred to as advance premium tax credits) or received after the individual files federal income taxes for the prior year. Some state governments have elected to cover the remaining balance of some individuals’ exchange plans, leveraging a combination of advance premium tax credits and state funds to fully cover health insurance premiums on certain exchange plans. For example, Hawaii created the Health Care Premium Assistance Program, a special state program that covers the cost of premiums on eligible plans for qualified residents who do not qualify for Medicaid. While Hawaii’s program was not created specifically in response to compact migration and is not limited to compact migrants, most of its enrollees are compact migrants, according to Hawaii government officials. Since its launch in 2015, the program pays the balance of health insurance premiums not covered by advance premium tax credits for those who would otherwise be qualified for federal Medicaid if not for their citizenship status, including compact migrants. According to state officials, the program covered 3,223 compact migrants residing in Hawaii as of June 2017. Oregon and Washington developed premium assistance programs specific to compact migrants that leverage advance premium tax credits to eliminate health care premium costs. In addition to covering premiums, these programs provide for out-of-pocket health care costs, according to the programs’ websites and state officials. Oregon COFA Premium Assistance Program. The Oregon COFA Premium Assistance Program was launched in 2017, expressly to help compact migrants gain access to health care. In Oregon, participants pay for out-of-pocket costs at the time of service and subsequently apply to the program for reimbursement. Oregon’s program covered 780 compact migrants as of October 2019, according to state officials. The officials estimated that this program leverages $9 of federal funds through advance premium tax credits for every $1 of Oregon state funds contributed. Washington COFA Islander Health Care. The Washington COFA Islander Health Care program was launched in 2019, expressly to help compact migrants gain access to health care, and was based in part on the Oregon program, according to state officials. Washington will also cover dental insurance costs for compact migrants beginning in 2021, according to the program’s website and state officials. Participants in Washington’s program receive a payment card with preloaded funds to use for out-of-pocket costs. The program covered approximately 1,100 compact migrants in 2019, according to state officials. (Fig. 6 shows an example of an advertisement for Washington’s program, presenting information in six languages spoken by compact migrants.) Additional Federal Health Care Funding in U.S. Territories All U.S. territories, including Guam and the CNMI, receive federal funding through Medicaid, which is subject to an annual cap. Section 2005 of the PPACA, as amended, increased the funding caps for the territories for the period beginning on July 1, 2011, and ending on September 30, 2019, and provided a total of $6.3 billion in additional federal funding for health care to the territories. Guam and the CNMI have used some of this funding, in addition to other federal funding for health care, to partially support compact migrants’ health care costs or to alleviate the burden on programs that cover compact migrants. Guam. PPACA Section 2005 funding partly alleviated the financial shortfall of Guam’s Medically Indigent Program, according to a territory official. The Medically Indigent Program pays for health care costs of primarily non-U.S. citizens living in Guam, including compact migrants, who do not have other health insurance. Most compact migrants in Guam qualify for this program after meeting the 6-month residency requirement, according to Guam officials. In fiscal year 2019, compact migrants participating in the program numbered 8,616, according to Guam officials, and made up 73 percent of the program’s total participation. The officials said that the program is also funded through Guam local appropriations and federal Medicaid Undocumented Emergency Services funding. CNMI. Territorial hospital officials said that PPACA Section 2005 funding available in fiscal years 2011 through 2019 partially covered patient care costs in excess of the territory’s annual Medicaid cap, including care for compact migrants. The CNMI Medicaid program uses federal Disaster Relief Assistance funding to reimburse the hospital for emergency services provided to compact migrants, according to CNMI officials. Other Health Care Services Available to Compact Migrants Non-U.S. citizens, including compact migrants, may access health care through the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Health Resources and Services Administration’s Health Center Program and through state government–supported clinics. The Health Center Program was established in the mid-1960s to help low-income individuals gain access to health care services. Health centers are responsible for delivering affordable, accessible, high-quality, comprehensive primary health care regardless of recipients’ ability to pay, according to Department of Health and Human Services officials. Figure 7 shows the entrance to Kokua Kalihi Valley, a federally qualified health center in Honolulu that estimates one-third of its patient population to be compact migrants, mostly from Micronesia. State clinics provide health services such as screening and treatment of certain infectious diseases to compact migrants, among other state residents. For example, the Arkansas Department of Health established the Dr. Joseph Bates Outreach Clinic to provide public health services to Marshallese in the region. As of September 2019, approximately 95 percent of the clinic’s patients were Marshallese, according to clinic officials. In addition, the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences Northwest Campus facilitates research and community health programs in the Marshallese community and has established a clinic focused on diabetes. Compact Migration Has Other Budgetary Effects The budgetary effects of compact migration in the U.S. areas we visited include contributions by compact migrants, such as payment of federal and state taxes and fees, and also include several types of government program costs related to compact migration. Budgetary contributions. Compact migrants pay payroll taxes, including income taxes, and contributions to Social Security and Medicare. They also pay fees associated with state or territorial documentation or licensing, including driver’s licenses. In general, reliable data on budgetary contributions of compact migrants are not available, because state and territorial tax filings and related databases do not provide data on citizenship or ethnicity, according to state and territorial officials. However, the Hawaiian government reported that in 2017, compact migrants generated an estimated $36.6 million in state revenue from fees and taxes, such as the individual income tax, general excise taxes, and taxes generated from state government spending. According to University of Guam officials and an FAS community member, the presence of FAS communities may have helped Guam institutions obtain funding, including funding for research. Budgetary costs. State and territorial officials identified budgetary costs related to compact migration. For example, officials cited costs of providing translators or interpreters for government programs and costs associated with compact migrant interactions with police and the justice system. Some states have elected to extend state-level programs for food or cash-based assistance to compact migrants who are ineligible for the federal equivalents. For example, Washington’s Cash Assistance and Food Assistance Programs provide financial support to FAS citizens who are ineligible for the federal Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program and Temporary Assistance for Needy Families. In Guam, some compact migrants qualify for the federal earned income tax credit, according to officials of Guam’s Department of Revenue and Taxation. The officials noted that because Guam’s tax system mirrors the federal system, any earned income tax credit paid in Guam is an expense to the territorial government. Compact Migrants Contribute to Workforces and Face Reported Challenges Compact migrants are eligible to work in U.S. areas and have contributed to the workforces of receiving communities, holding jobs in a range of industries. According to stakeholders we interviewed, compact migrants have encountered challenges while participating in the workforce. Workforce Contributions by Compact Migrants In the U.S. areas where they reside, compact migrants participate in the local economies in part by serving in the workforce in a variety of fields, including manufacturing, service industries, and professional industries, according to stakeholders we interviewed. See table 7 for examples. The following describes compact migrants’ participation in the areas we visited. Arkansas. Arkansas private sector representatives described Marshallese workers as essential to poultry plant operations, comprising one-quarter to one-third of some plants’ workers. At one such plant, most Marshallese employed are line workers on the floor of the plant, while others work as trainers and translators. Other compact migrants in Arkansas work at an airport; in hotels; in retail; or as caregivers, including in adult day care, according to FAS consular officials and nonprofit representatives. CNMI. CNMI officials and a private sector representative described compact migrants as a valuable resource in supplementing the CNMI’s small labor pool. Officials also noted that without compact migrants, businesses would have to recruit more foreign labor and face more-severe hiring challenges than they do now. Officials and a private sector representative stated that several businesses and franchises were founded by, and employ, compact migrants. Guam. Guam Chamber of Commerce representatives indicated that compact migrant workers would not be easily replaced if they were no longer eligible to work in Guam and that hiring other foreign workers in Guam involves difficult visa processes. Compact migrants tend to hold entry-level and low-skill jobs in Guam and have high turnover rates, according to representatives from one company. Several businesses in Guam were founded by, or cater to, compact migrants, according to private sector representatives. Hawaii. Micronesian officials noted that established communities of compact migrants in Hawaii help other FAS citizens to migrate, network, and find job opportunities. FAS community members in Hawaii identified multiple local businesses that either are owned by compact migrants or employ a large number of compact migrants. Oregon. In Oregon, some compact migrants work as caregivers or in a plant manufacturing reusable plastic containers for food storage and transport, according to an FAS official and community members. Oregon state government officials noted that compact migrants play an important role in working with adults and children with intellectual and developmental disabilities and in other paid caregiver capacities. The Governor of Oregon noted that compact migrants bring a tremendous amount of value to Oregon communities as educators, social workers, caregivers, and as members of the U.S. military. Other jobs or industries in which compact migrants work include warehousing, fast-food restaurants, and airport jobs, according to FAS officials. Washington. Some compact migrants work in caregiving, including at senior care homes; in manufacturing, warehousing, fast-food restaurants, or nonprofits; as artisans; or at airports, according to state and FAS officials and FAS community members. Workforce Challenges Faced by Compact Migrants Stakeholders reported that compact migrants have encountered various challenges related to participation in the U.S. workforce. See appendix VII for additional challenges experienced by compact migrant communities. Form I-94. Compact migrants from Micronesia and the Marshall Islands may present an unexpired FAS passport and Form I-94 Arrival/Departure Record (known as Form I-94) to employers to demonstrate their identity and employment authorizations. Before 2013, compact migrants entering the United States received a paper copy of the form to document their legal entry and their ability to legally reside indefinitely in the United States. The DHS transition in 2013 from issuing Forms I-94 on paper to issuing them electronically created challenges for compact migrants, according to FAS community members. According to consulate officials, communities were not adequately notified that DHS would maintain these records in publicly accessible databases for only 5 years. As a result, some compact migrants who entered the United States after mid-2013 did not download their Forms I-94 before they became unavailable and thus did not have a Form I-94 to show to employers, according to stakeholders we interviewed. REAL ID–compliant driver’s licenses. Some employers require employees to have REAL ID–compliant driver’s licenses, according to FAS officials and community members. Before September 2019, DHS required compact migrants and other nonimmigrants applying for a REAL ID–compliant driver’s license to present an unexpired passport with an unexpired visa and Form I-94 or to present an employment authorization document. However, because compact migrants do not receive a visa and are not otherwise required to obtain an employment authorization document, they were unable to obtain the licenses. In September 2019, DHS changed its requirements specifically to allow compact migrants to receive REAL ID–compliant driver’s licenses by presenting an unexpired passport and Form I- 94. Some compact migrants in Guam said that challenges related to REAL ID before the DHS regulation change had negatively affected their employment because some military base jobs required these documents for employment or for base access. In addition, some compact migrants have lost jobs at airports because of difficulty in obtaining REAL ID–compliant identification, according to Marshallese embassy officials. See appendix X for information about legislative and DHS policy changes that affected compact migrants’ ability to access full-term REAL ID–compliant driver’s licenses and identification cards. Commercial driver’s licenses. Various stakeholders discussed difficulties that compact migrants had encountered in obtaining commercial driver’s licenses required by certain jobs and obtaining standard driver’s licenses that are compliant with REAL ID requirements in some states. Marshallese officials said that compact migrants’ inability to obtain or renew commercial driver’s licenses had prevented them from being able to work in related jobs, such as truck driving. Labor abuse and discrimination. In September 2019, the government of Micronesia requested that the Department of State provide assistance to investigate abuse and mistreatment of Micronesian citizens who were recruited to move to the United States to work for a U.S. company in Iowa. In addition, compact migrants in Hawaii, Guam, and Oregon told us that they had faced workplace discrimination or were seen as harming the local economy. For example, compact migrants in Guam said that they had experienced discrimination in hiring and pay and sometimes were made to feel like a burden on the community. Additionally, a March 2019 report by the Hawaii Advisory Committee to the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights concluded that some compact migrants find it difficult to report workplace discrimination because they are concerned about retaliation from employers. The report found, among other things, that compact migrants face discrimination in access to employment and housing and also face widespread negative public perception in Hawaii. Compact Migration Has Societal Effects Stakeholders expressed some concerns about compact migration with respect to public health and law enforcement interactions. In addition to participating in the workforce, compact migrants participate in social institutions and create diversity and cultural exchange in their receiving communities. Public Health State and territorial health department officials and health care providers in the U.S. areas we visited noted concerns about the prevalence of communicable diseases such as tuberculosis and Hansen’s disease in compact migrant communities. Tuberculosis. State and territorial health departments have worked to identify and treat cases of active and latent tuberculosis in compact migrant communities. About 15 to 20 percent of active, communicable tuberculosis cases in Hawaii have occurred in the FAS community, including several cases of antimicrobial drug–resistant variants of tuberculosis, according to Hawaii government officials. In 2019, 23 communicable tuberculosis cases were diagnosed in compact migrants in Hawaii. In Arkansas, public health officials estimated that they had screened 30 percent of the Marshallese population since 2000 and reported 202 active cases and 500 cases of latent tuberculosis infection between 1997 and 2019. Arkansas officials also said that they screened 1,728 Marshallese and reported five cases of active disease and 95 cases of tuberculosis infection in fiscal years 2018 and 2019. In 2017 and 2018, Arkansas officials traveled to the Marshall Islands to conduct screening for active and latent tuberculosis in addition to diabetes and Hansen’s disease. Hansen’s disease. Hansen’s disease affects some members of compact migrant communities, according to health care providers and state government officials. For example, the Hawaii Department of Health has a registry of 281 patients who are on active treatment or monitoring for recurrence of Hansen’s disease or complications from the disease. The department manages 10 to 20 new cases of Hansen’s disease each year. According to Hawaii public health officials, 95 percent of the individuals diagnosed with Hansen’s disease in the state were from the Micronesian or Marshallese communities. From 2003 to 2019, the Arkansas Department of Health reported that 54 individuals, including 42 compact migrants, had been diagnosed with Hansen’s disease. Public Order and Law Enforcement Interactions Some stakeholders reported concerns regarding public order and law enforcement interactions with compact migrants in Guam, Hawaii, and Washington. Guam. Guam law enforcement agencies report on crimes committed by, or attributed to, FAS groups in each location. Guam private sector representatives we interviewed expressed a belief that social tension with the FAS communities was driven in part by some compact migrants’ public drunkenness or violence. In addition, language barriers can hinder compact migrants’ social integration into receiving communities, according to Guam law enforcement officials. Hawaii. Common offenses for which compact migrants are cited or arrested in Hawaii include quality-of-life or social-order offenses, such as trespassing, disorderly conduct, drinking in public or driving under the influence of alcohol, assault, or harassment, according to state officials. These interactions with the public or with law enforcement officials may contribute to a strained relationship between compact migrants and receiving communities. Hawaii officials estimated that 20 to 25 percent of the population using the state’s homeless services self-identify as part of the FAS community. Compact migrants may sleep in public parks, which can lead to legal charges. A lack of affordable housing may be a cause for homelessness among FAS communities. Washington. Marshallese embassy officials cited sporadic problems with gang activity and drug use among some younger Marshallese community members, particularly those living in Washington. These officials suggested that some migrant children who feel bullied or pressured may band together, resulting in a negative or gang-like situation. Community and Volunteer Work In some U.S. areas we visited, stakeholders we interviewed said that compact migrants seek to contribute to, or engage with, their surrounding U.S. communities through volunteer work, including church activities, environmental work, and other efforts. For example, FAS communities described participating in environmental cleanup efforts, including efforts to control invasive species and leveraging their agricultural knowledge to help Hawaiian farmers grow a more resilient variety of taro. Several community representatives in multiple states noted that some compact migrants spend a significant amount of time supporting their fellow community members as translators or interpreters or volunteering to help others navigate complex systems in U.S. areas. FAS citizens also serve in the U.S. military. The FAS countries have a high rate of military service, according to FAS officials and State documentation. Increased Diversity Stakeholders in some U.S. areas we visited described compact migrant populations as contributing to the diversity of receiving communities and educational institutions. For example, University of Guam officials said that FAS student association groups sponsor cultural events and activities that help to define the character of the university. The officials also noted that FAS students contribute to research portfolios and bring FAS government and community perspectives to classroom discussions. The officials observed that the presence of compact migrants increases the university community’s diversity and its cultural awareness and competency. In Arkansas, Marshallese community members said that they had helped to teach local U.S. residents about Marshallese culture and history not otherwise taught in U.S. schools. Marshallese community members in Arkansas also expressed a belief that the community brought a greater emphasis on family and respect for elders to the region. Agency Comments, Third-Party Views, and Our Evaluation We provided a draft of this report for review and comment to the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Health and Human Services, Homeland Security, Housing and Urban Development, the Interior, State, and Transportation; the Social Security Administration; the Governors of Hawaii, Guam, the CNMI, Arkansas, Oregon, and Washington; and the Ambassadors of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau to the United States. The Departments of Agriculture, Health and Human Services, Homeland Security, and State and the Social Security Administration provided technical comments, which we incorporated as appropriate. The Departments of Commerce, Housing and Urban Development, the Interior, and Transportation did not provide comments. U.S. areas and the FAS Ambassadors provided written comments that we have summarized below and reproduced in appendixes XI through XIX, and responded to their comments, where appropriate, at the end of those appendixes. Comments from U.S. Areas Hawaii. The government of Hawaii commented that the health and economic impacts of the coronavirus pandemic, in addition to Hawaii’s high cost of living and public charge concerns, affect the state’s compact migrant communities in particular. The government also observed that racial disparities and other determinants of health and well-being are exacerbated for compact migrants. Noting that compact migrants lack access to Medicaid and the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, the government urged that compact migrants’ access to health care and food nutrition programs be treated as a federal priority. Guam. The government of Guam advocated, in the context of the coronavirus pandemic, for restoring debt relief provisions associated with compact migration to offset unreimbursed compact expenses. The government noted that from the time the compacts went into effect until 1996, FAS citizens maintained access to federal health coverage. The government also commented that in 2017, Interior’s Office of Insular Affairs reported to Congress that restoring this eligibility would be in line with Congress’ intent to never cause adverse consequences to the territories and Hawaii. In addition, the government observed that moving compact migrants from Guam’s locally funded Medically Indigent Program to Medicaid would help Guam provide government services to all residents who need them. The government of Guam noted that the ongoing absence of an agreed definition for compact migrant for the purposes of data collection creates confusion. CNMI. The government of the CNMI commented on the importance of compact migrants’ contributions to the territory’s workforce needs and noted that they enrich the cultural makeup of the CNMI. Separately, the government stated that the response to the enumeration error discovered by the U.S. Census Bureau that led to a misallocation of compact impact funds has penalized the territories. According to Interior’s modified plan, future allocations to the CNMI (in addition to Guam and American Samoa) would be adjusted downward to account for past overpayment. The CNMI commented that reducing the future amounts of compact impact funds because of an error of the federal government does not recognize the present needs of the CNMI. The CNMI government also noted that the territories receive less data collection support from the American Community Survey, the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, and the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics than other U.S. areas receive. Arkansas. The government of Arkansas commented that it considered the Census Bureau data in our report to underestimate the compact migrant population in Arkansas, and it cited several higher estimates. The government noted that the state does not receive compact funding, despite its high population of Marshallese, because it is not an affected jurisdiction as defined in the Compacts of Free Association Amendments Act of 2003. The government projected that approximately 12,000 compact migrants reside in Arkansas and estimated its annual costs related to compact migration at about $72 million. We believe that the Census Bureau data are sufficiently reliable for our purposes of estimating the number of compact migrants in U.S. areas. However, our report includes a discussion of stakeholder concerns that the compact migrant population in Arkansas may have been undercounted. We reported that the Census Bureau had estimated the compact migrant population in Arkansas during the period 2013 to 2017 at 5,895 on the basis of the definition of “compact migrants” used for its enumerations—citizens of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau who entered the United States after 1986 (from Micronesia and the Marshall Islands) or 1994 (from Palau) and their U.S.-born children (biological, adopted, and step-) and grandchildren younger than 18 years. Oregon. The government of Oregon advocated for more reporting on the effects that U.S. military access to, and U.S. testing of 67 nuclear weapons in, the Marshall Islands has had on compact migration, citing the devastating impact of nuclear fallout on inhabitants’ health and the environment. The government of Oregon also cited a need to report on compact migrants’ positive contributions to receiving areas. Our report provides qualitative descriptions of compact migrants’ contributions, including budgetary, workforce, and social contributions, and also provides high-level data on estimated mean and median incomes among compact migrants. We have incorporated additional statements by the government of Oregon about compact migrant contributions in our report. The government noted that it has taken steps at the state level to provide health care access to compact migrant populations while also urging Congress to restore this populations’ access to federal programs such as Medicaid and Temporary Assistance for Needy Families. Further, the government called on Interior to expand the definition of “affected jurisdiction” and appropriate grant funds equitably. As we note in our report, this definition and the associated grant funding were established by Congress in the amended compacts’ implementing legislation. Washington. The government of Washington commented that our report did not provide a detailed history of U.S. military nuclear testing in the FASs and subsequent impacts on them and their citizens. The government noted that such information is necessary to explain FAS citizens’ current challenges and why additional resources are required to meet their needs. Further, the government commented that our report omits the personal narratives that are critical to a holistic account of the FAS experience in the United States, including the struggles many compact migrants face. Our report incorporates information that we obtained through our interviews with members of compact migrant communities, including those in Washington, such as reasons for migration, workforce and other challenges they faced, and stakeholder suggestions for improving experiences or outcomes of compact migration (see app. VII). The government of Washington stated that it hoped our report would prompt the federal government to make additional resources available to U.S. areas with sizeable compact migrant populations, and it called for inclusion of Washington among affected jurisdictions receiving compact impact grant funding. Comments from Freely Associated States Micronesia. The Embassy of the Federated States of Micronesia emphasized the importance of quantifying not only costs but also economic benefits of compact migration, including job creation, taxes paid, and community contributions. The embassy also called for guidelines and enumeration methods that better capture actual costs and revenue. The embassy noted the relationship between FAS citizens’ ineligibility for federal programs such as Medicaid and the costs borne by local governments and communities in the absence of these federal programs. According to the embassy, the continuing challenge of Micronesian citizens’ ineligibility for Medicaid since 1996, compounded by the effects of relevant social determinants of health, make their successful integration in U.S. areas more difficult. Noting that these circumstances have a direct effect on Micronesian migrants’ ability to contribute positively in receiving areas and become less reliant on public assistance programs, the embassy expressed support for the restoration of FAS citizens’ eligibility for Medicaid and for expanded veterans’ health care in Micronesia. The embassy commented that compact impact grant funding is a domestic issue and that discussions related to this issue should not diminish the priority of ongoing U.S. assistance to Micronesia under the compact. The embassy also raised concerns about challenges facing compact migrants, including the challenges described in our report. Marshall Islands. The Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands described the migration rights provided in the compact as fundamental and essential to its country’s relationship with the United States. Additionally, the embassy observed that restoring Medicaid eligibility for its citizens living and working in the United States would greatly benefit its citizens and substantially reduce impact costs to certain areas. The embassy noted that, although Marshall Islands citizens living in the United States are eligible to purchase individual market health insurance plans through exchanges established under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, many who are employed lack access to affordable health care because of the limited insurance benefits offered by most service industries or the high cost of covering family members. Furthermore, the embassy called for an objective accounting of revenue received from compact migrants and depiction of their contributions to, for example, the health and food security of the United States through employment in the food processing industry and other essential work. Last, the embassy commented that the addition of Marshallese workers to the 2020 census effort may remedy the potential undercounting of its citizens in the previous census. Palau. The Embassy of the Republic of Palau observed that it would be helpful to know the number of compact migrants from each FAS country who are able to access the federal programs for which they are eligible. This question was outside the scope of our review. Further, the embassy commented that it would like the U.S. federal government to inform and educate state departments of motor vehicles regarding the special status of FAS citizens in the United States, and it highlighted the difficulties that compact migrants historically have faced in obtaining REAL ID–compliant identification. We are sending copies of this report to the appropriate congressional committees and to the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Health and Human Services, Homeland Security, Housing and Urban Development, the Interior, State, and Transportation; the Social Security Administration; and the Governors of Arkansas, the CNMI, Guam, Hawaii, Oregon, and Washington; and the Ambassadors of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau. In addition, the report is available at no charge on the GAO website at https://www.gao.gov. If you or your staff have any questions about this report, please contact me at (202) 512-3149 or [email protected]. Contact points for our Offices of Congressional Relations and Public Affairs may be found on the last page of this report. GAO staff who made key contributions to this report are listed in appendix XX. Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology We were asked to review topics related to migration to U.S. areas from the freely associated states (FAS)—the Federated States of Micronesia (Micronesia), the Republic of the Marshall Islands (Marshall Islands), and the Republic of Palau (Palau)—under those countries’ compacts of free association with the United States. This report (1) presents estimates of compact migrant populations and describes recent trends in compact migration; (2) summarizes the reported costs related to compact migration (compact impact costs) in three affected jurisdictions—Hawaii, Guam, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI); and (3) describes effects of compact migration on governments, workforces, and societies in these and other U.S. areas. Migration Data To present estimates of compact migrant populations in U.S. areas and describe recent trends in compact migration, we obtained special tabulations of data from the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2013-2017 American Community Survey (ACS) for the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. For Guam and the CNMI—U.S. territories that are not covered by the ACS—we used the Census Bureau’s revised 2018 enumeration of compact migrants in these areas. The special tabulations of ACS data and the Census Bureau’s 2013 and 2018 enumeration reports defined compact migrants as individuals residing in U.S. areas who were born in the FASs and entered the United States after 1986 (for Micronesia and the Marshall Islands) or 1994 (for Palau) and their U.S.-born children (biological, adopted, step-) and grandchildren younger than 18 years. We calculated percentage changes in states and territories that had more than 1,000 estimated compact migrants (or were designated as affected jurisdictions by the 2003 compacts’ implementing legislation) by comparing 2005-2009 ACS data and the 2008 enumeration with 2013-2017 ACS data and the revised 2018 enumeration. To identify and describe changes in Census Bureau methods and definitions for enumerating compact migrants over time (see app. VI), we reviewed the definitions of “compact migrant” in the bureau’s enumeration reports for tabulations before and including 2018. We also interviewed Census Bureau and Department of the Interior (Interior) officials. For example, we asked when and where grandchildren were counted among compact migrants younger than 18 years. To estimate net arrivals to U.S. areas by travelers with FAS passports (see app. III), we analyzed data from the Department of Homeland Security’s (DHS) Customs and Border Protection’s (CBP) Arrival and Departure Information System (ADIS). According to CBP officials, ADIS consolidates data from several DHS systems to create unique, person- centric travel records for all travelers regardless of citizenship. We calculated monthly FAS net arrivals to U.S. areas from 2017 through 2019 by using ADIS data that DHS provided, showing numbers of individuals with FAS-issued passports entering and exiting U.S. ports of entry each month during the period. To assess the reliability of ADIS data, we spoke with DHS officials to identify potential data reliability concerns and other limitations of ADIS. Officials said that any compact migrant who enters on an FAS passport and holds U.S. citizenship will be masked or not appear in the ADIS system. Officials also said that compact migrants who become U.S. citizens after arrival or are later discovered to be U.S. citizens are removed from the data; CBP officials believed these numbers to be small. We also conducted statistical checks for consistency and completeness of the ADIS data, including validating the ADIS data against publicly available passenger data from the U.S. Department of Transportation Air Carrier Statistics (TranStats) T-100 database for 2015 to 2019 (data for 2019 were partial). We used flight segment data from the T-100 database containing total passenger counts reported by both U.S. and foreign air carriers for flights that compact migrants take to U.S. areas. We found that data from ADIS and the T-100 database were positively correlated for 2015, 2017, 2018, and 2019 but were not correlated for 2016. According to CBP officials, ADIS was significantly changed in 2016 and may contain duplicate entries for that year. As a result, we determined that ADIS data for 2017 and later were sufficiently reliable for our intended use. Reported Costs Related to Compact Migration To quantify costs related to compact migration that were reported by the affected jurisdictions included in our review—Hawaii, Guam, and the CNMI—we reviewed documents that they had published or provided to Interior, such as compact impact reports submitted by Hawaii and Guam and grant documents submitted by the CNMI. We used the most recent data available for 2004 through 2018. To identify the amount of funding distributed by Interior as compact impact grants to the affected jurisdictions, we interviewed Interior officials and reviewed relevant documentation. Effects of Compact Migration on Governments, Workforces, and Societies To identify and describe effects of compact migration on governments, workforces, and societies of receiving U.S. areas, we reviewed relevant documentation and conducted interviews with stakeholders in six U.S. areas that we visited. Documentation that we reviewed included program information and counts of compact migrants using state-level benefits programs, treated by state or local health clinics, enrolled in public schools or higher-education institutions, or using interpreters. Because various sources may define compact migrants by ethnicity, place of birth, language of origin, or other metrics, we noted the definition used for each count in this report. To identify the eligibility of compact migrants for selected federal programs, we reviewed relevant statutes and regulations and held discussions with officials from the U.S. agencies that oversee the programs. We selected the programs included in table 1 on the basis of those we included in a prior report, and we added other selected programs that we learned about in the course of interviews for our current report. We traveled to, and interviewed stakeholders in, six U.S. states and territories where compact migrants live, including three of the U.S. areas designated in the 2003 amended compacts’ implementing legislation as affected jurisdictions—Hawaii, Guam, and the CNMI— and three mainland states—Arkansas, Oregon, and Washington. We selected these areas on the basis of previously reported compact migrant population distributions in U.S. areas and of the locations of consulates or honorary consuls established by Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau. Stakeholders we interviewed included officials from nine federal agencies; state and territorial government officials in areas we visited; private sector and nonprofit organization representatives such as chambers of commerce, employers of compact migrants, and nonprofit service providers; officials from the FAS embassies and consulates or honorary consuls in areas we visited; and compact migrants living in areas we visited (see table 8). FAS embassy officials in Washington, D.C., connected us with local community members who helped us promote and organize the local community meetings in areas we visited. Participants whom we interviewed in the meetings do not represent a generalizable sample of compact migrants, and the challenges they discussed are not comprehensive (see app. VII for a discussion of challenges faced by compact migrants, according to stakeholders we interviewed). To describe academic studies of workforce and fiscal impacts of new migrants (see app. IX), we conducted a search, using keywords relevant to the economic impact of migration, in American and European economics academic journals published during the period 2015 to 2019. We reviewed a subset of these articles that we deemed most relevant to the context of compact migration, including articles that related to migration of lower-skilled workers and that included empirical analysis of the impact of this migration on various economic aspects. We also reviewed survey articles reviewing the conclusions of prior relevant publications. We conducted this performance audit from March 2019 through June 2020 in accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain sufficient, appropriate evidence to provide a reasonable basis for our findings and conclusions based on our audit objectives. We believe that the evidence obtained provides a reasonable basis for our findings and conclusions based on our audit objectives. Appendix II: Estimates of Compact Migrants in U.S. Areas Table 9 presents Census Bureau data for U.S. states and territories that had estimated compact migrant populations of more than 1,000 in 2013 through 2018 and shows percentage changes in these populations from 2005-2009 to 2013-2018. Data for U.S. areas not covered by the American Community Survey, including Guam, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), and American Samoa, are from compact migration enumerations that the Census Bureau performed on behalf of the Department of the Interior. According to 5-year data from the Census Bureau’s 2013-2017 American Community Survey, 72,965 compact migrants resided in the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. (The American Community Survey does not cover American Samoa, the CNMI, Guam, or the U.S. Virgin Islands.) For estimates of the number of compact migrants in each of the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico, see table 10. The American Community Survey captures, among other things, respondents’ place of birth (by country) and state of residence. Table 11 provides Census Bureau estimates, using 2013-2017 American Community Survey data, of the numbers of compact migrants born in the freely associated states—the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and the Republic of Palau—and residing in each of the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. Appendix III: Federal Travel Data Showing Compact Migration to U.S. Areas From 2017 through 2019, an average of about 366 more migrants from the Federated States of Micronesia (Micronesia), Republic of the Marshall Islands (Marshall Islands), and Republic of Palau (Palau) arrived in U.S. areas per month (4,390 per year) than departed, according to the Department of Homeland Security’s Customs and Border Protection’s Arrival and Departure Information System (ADIS). As figure 8 shows, this trend was driven by migrants from Micronesia and the Marshall Islands (3,343 and 1,487 per year on average, respectively). Each year during this period, an average of about 440 more Palauan citizens departed from the United States than arrived. Appendix IV: Demographics and Characteristics of Compact Migrants in the 50 U.S. States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico The Census Bureau’s American Community Survey is an ongoing survey that provides information on a yearly basis, including employment status, educational attainment, veteran status, and age of survey respondents, among other topics. The survey covers the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. (The survey does not cover American Samoa, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, or the U.S. Virgin Islands.) Some data for compact migrant populations are available through the American Community Survey. See table 12 for demographic information about compact migrant populations in the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico in 2013 to 2017. See table 13 for demographic information about the compact migrant population in Hawaii only. Appendix V: Compact Impact Costs Reported by Hawaii, Guam, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Since 1986, Hawaii, Guam, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) have submitted to the Department of the Interior (Interior) intermittent compact impact reports and other documents that include descriptions of, and estimated costs for, education, health, public safety, and social services that local government agencies provided to compact migrants. Hawaii and Guam have submitted compact impact reports, which are available on Interior’s Office of Insular Affairs’ website. The CNMI has not submitted a compact impact report since fiscal year 2003 but reports compact impact costs to Interior in the CNMI’s annual plan for the use of compact impact grants. Table 14 shows the estimated costs that these affected jurisdictions reported to Interior or provided to us for 1986 through 2018. Appendix VI: Compact Migrant Enumeration Methods, Definitions, and Error The Census Bureau, working under an interagency agreement with the Department of the Interior (Interior), has conducted six sets of enumerations of compact migrants in affected jurisdictions for the purpose of allocating compact impact grant funding and has performed the enumerations every 5 years. Enumeration methods and definitions have changed over time. During the course of our work, an error was discovered that affected the accuracy of the 2013 and 2018 enumerations and also affected Interior’s allocations of compact impact grants for several fiscal years. Compact Migrant Enumeration Methods Census Bureau methods of gathering new data or analyzing existing data for compact migrant enumerations on behalf of Interior have changed over time. In 1993,1998, and 2003, the bureau used the “snowball” technique; in 2008, 2013, and 2018, the bureau employed a two-pronged approach. For enumerations in 1993, 1998, and 2003, the Census Bureau employed a survey method known as snowball sampling to count compact migrants in Hawaii, Guam, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI). Because the surveys relied on referrals by respondents to identify new respondents, they were likely to undercount compact migrants who were not referred. For the enumerations in 2008, 2013, and 2018, the Census Bureau used a combination of existing and new survey data to count or estimate the numbers of compact migrants in Hawaii, Guam, and the CNMI. However, for the enumerations in Hawaii, the bureau used a different approach than it used for the enumerations in Guam and the CNMI. Also, for the enumerations in Guam and the CNMI, the bureau used a different approach in 2013 than it used in 2008 and 2018. To estimate the number of compact migrants in Hawaii, the Census Bureau used existing American Community Survey data. To estimate the numbers of compact migrants in Guam and the CNMI, the bureau used existing decennial census data in 2013 and gathered new survey data in 2008 and 2018. See table 15 for a summary of the enumeration methods that the Census Bureau has used over time. Definitions of “Compact Migrant” Used in Enumerations The definition of “compact migrant” that the Census Bureau used for the enumerations has changed over time. Each enumeration has counted as a compact migrant any individual, of any age, who was born in the Federated States of Micronesia (Micronesia), the Republic of the Marshall Islands (Marshall Islands), or the Republic of Palau (Palau) and who entered the United States after the effective date of their country’s compact. However, the enumerations in 2003, in 2008, and in 2013 and 2018 used various criteria for counting U.S.-born (U.S. citizen) individuals as children of compact migrants and therefore as compact migrants. 2003 enumeration. The definition of “compact migrant” in the 2003 amended compacts’ implementing legislation indicates that the children of compact migrants were to be considered compact migrants until 18 years of age. Interior interpreted the legislation’s definition of “compact migrant” as including all children younger than 18 years who were born to a compact migrant or migrants in the United States, thus including some U.S. citizens. 2008 enumeration. For the 2008 enumeration, the Census Bureau, on behalf of Interior, counted as compact migrants all children (biological, adopted, and step-) younger than 18 years who were born in the United States to a compact migrant head of household or to his or her spouse, were adopted by a compact migrant head of household or by his or her spouse, or were stepchildren of a compact migrant head of household or of his or her spouse. 2013 and 2018 enumerations. Starting with the 2013 enumeration, the Census Bureau also began counting as compact migrants all children (biological, adopted, and step-) younger than 18 years who were born in the United States to a compact migrant or to his or her spouse, regardless of whether they were the children of the head of household or of his or her spouse, and all grandchildren of a compact migrant who were younger than 18 years, regardless of whether they were the grandchildren of the head of household or of his or her spouse. Also starting with the 2013 enumeration, the Census Bureau introduced a requirement that to be counted as a compact migrant, a child or grandchild of a compact migrant must never have been married. For a summary of “compact migrant” definitions used for the enumerations over time, see table 16. Compact Migrant Enumeration Results, 1993-2018 The six sets of enumerations of compact migrants that the Census Bureau conducted on behalf of Interior in affected jurisdictions from 1993 through 2018 showed these populations growing in Hawaii and Guam and fluctuating in the CNMI. During our work with the Census Bureau to obtain American Community Survey data related to compact migrant populations, bureau officials discovered a programming error in the 2013 and 2018 enumerations of compact migrants that had resulted in an underestimate of certain compact migrants in Hawaii. The bureau revised these estimates in October 2019 to correct for the error in Hawaii. Figure 9 shows the Census Bureau’s revised estimates of compact migrants in the affected jurisdictions as of October 2019. In February 2020, Interior requested that the Census Bureau further revise its estimates for 2013 and 2018 to no longer count grandchildren. As of March 2020, the results of this revision were not yet available. 2013 and 2018 Enumeration Error Appendix VII: Stakeholder Suggestions to Address Challenges Related to Compact Migration In the U.S. areas we visited, stakeholders from state and territorial governments, private sector and nonprofit organizations, and freely associated state (FAS) consulates and communities made suggestions for improving experiences or outcomes of compact migration for both the receiving areas and the migrants themselves. Stakeholders recommended that some actions be taken in both the United States after compact migrants’ arrival and in the FASs before the migrants’ departure. Federal Policies, Operations, and Funding Provide more information and education about the compacts. Several stakeholders said that U.S. agencies should better understand the compacts and coordinate their related work. These stakeholders, including members of compact migrant communities, noted that U.S. government officials in some cases have seemed uncertain or unaware that compact migrants are able to live and work in U.S. areas without a visa or other documentation and have asked them to present immigration documents they do not possess or are not required to obtain. An FAS official and community members noted a need for more education of employers and state government officials regarding the migration terms of the compacts and the migration status of FAS citizens in the United States. Restore Medicaid eligibility and expand benefits access. State government officials and health care providers advocated restoring Medicaid access to FAS populations. An FAS Consul General advocated restoring Medicaid eligibility to its pre-1996 status for compact migrants. FAS community members suggested extending Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program benefits and expanding federal student loan access to compact migrants. Provide more information and guidelines about federal programs and policies. State government officials suggested that changes to federal government policies should include specific information about the applicability of the changes to FAS citizens. Health care providers suggested that the federal government should share more data about compact migration and noted a need for federally established guidelines to support accurate, rather than exaggerated, cost reporting. The providers noted that compact impact estimating was chaotic and had a negative effect on the community. FAS community members expressed interest in federally provided educational sessions and clear eligibility criteria for federal benefits. Simplify Form I-94 access for compact migrants. FAS consular officials and community members said that compact migrants entering the United States should receive information about the importance of their Form I-94 Arrival/Departure Record (Form I-94) and how to retrieve it online. Because compact migrants have had difficulty in accessing these forms, and given the cost of replacing them, FAS community members requested that federal agencies be enabled to retrieve migrants’ Forms I-94 for them. FAS consular officials recommended that compact migrants’ Forms I-94 be made accessible on the Customs and Border Protection website indefinitely, not only for the current 5-year period, since compact migrants’ forms do not expire. Provide more and broader funding to U.S. states and territories. State government officials, nonprofit representatives, and FAS community members said that more federal funding and resources were needed to accommodate the compact migrant population or to support the receiving states and territories. State government officials also said that the federal government should increase compact impact funds to a “reasonable amount,” even if the full costs cannot be covered. They noted that the compacts represent a federal obligation and expressed a belief that the federal government should take care of compact migrants. According to some health care providers, the United States’ treatment of the compact migrant population in U.S. areas could affect the FASs’ compact negotiations with the U.S. government. State government officials also suggested that allowing compact migrants access to more federal benefits would help alleviate compact impact on states and territories. Clarify immigration provisions under the compacts of free association. FAS community members in some locations we visited expressed a need for clarification about the status of migration provisions of the compacts. Specifically, they expressed concern that they might have to leave the United States in 2023. For example, in one FAS community we visited, community members registered confusion about whether provisions of the compacts (including migration provisions) are scheduled to end in 2023 and whether FAS citizens in U.S. areas can become U.S. citizens. One community member expressed concern that compact migrants would be “chased” out of U.S. areas after 2023 and that “all of their rights” under the compacts would be revoked. FAS community members also sought clarification about the implementation of the DHS rule for considering public charge while determining admissibility to U.S. areas. According to community members and other stakeholders, the rule has caused uncertainty in compact migrant communities, which may result in some compact migrants’ not enrolling in, or unenrolling from, public benefits programs. FAS community members said that they are uncertain whether and how the rule change will apply to them and whether enrolling in public benefits or enrolling eligible children will make them ineligible to reenter the United States. FAS consular officials and community members also suggested revising certain immigration provisions—for example, changing compact migrants’ nonimmigrant status to allow them access to a wider range of jobs, including law enforcement and military officer positions. Health Care Expand health care access and clinics in U.S. areas. State government officials said they believed that more health education and outreach to FAS communities were needed. A nonprofit representative noted that FAS communities lack vision care and that the extension of postpartum care to FAS communities would improve maternal and child health. FAS community members suggested the creation of a Pacific Islander–specific health clinic in the Pacific Northwest, with translators on staff and on-site enrollment for health insurance. Representatives of a nongovernmental organization in Hawaii that is led and staffed by compact migrants noted that a series of changes in compact migrants’ eligibility for the Hawaii state health care program, Med-QUEST, had caused confusion about compact migrants’ eligibility for public health care benefits. Address preventative care, dialysis needs, and communicable diseases in the FASs. State and territorial government officials and health care providers said that greater access to in-country care, including more resources for primary care, was needed in the FASs. They recommended making more preventative treatment available in the FASs, including diabetes prevention, and establishing clinics in the FASs to potentially reduce the number of individuals moving to the United States for health care. Health care providers suggested that the Department of the Interior (Interior) should produce or fund a study on dialysis in the FASs, including an analysis of whether high-quality dialysis services in the FASs would decrease migration solely for access to dialysis. Territorial government officials suggested that compact migrants should receive health screenings before departing for the United States to identify any serious conditions or communicable diseases. Some health care providers and state government officials proposed that the U.S. federal government focus on reducing or eliminating the transmission of tuberculosis in the FASs. Compact Migrant Orientation and Services Offer predeparture education to compact migrants in the FASs. State government officials and nonprofit representatives suggested that videos be aired on television in the FASs to support predeparture education, to explain differences they would find in the United States, and to reduce culture shock after arrival. Some state government officials and health care providers suggested that FAS citizens be encouraged to gather documentation, such as immunization and medical records, school records, and anything necessary to obtain a U.S. driver’s license, before departing for the United States. State government officials also suggested that lists of community-based organizations, by U.S. state or territory and city, be provided to FAS citizens before their departure. Offer orientation and information to compact migrants arriving in the United States. State government officials said that U.S. areas should offer and fund location-specific orientations for FAS citizens after arrival. The officials suggested that these orientations should cover how health care eligibility works, what resources are available to compact migrants, and how they can contact interpreters. State government officials also said that proactive education about U.S. laws could help compact migrants avoid behavior or circumstances that might cause them to run afoul of the law, given cultural differences and misunderstandings. Health care providers noted that compact migrants could be given more information to encourage better nutritional choices and more exercise. Expand and professionalize translation and interpretation resources. Compact migrants who are not fluent in English may experience challenges accessing or navigating health care, the judicial system, and educational institutions, according to state government officials, FAS consulate officials, private sector and nonprofit organization representatives, and compact migrant communities. State government officials reported frequent difficulty in finding interpreters and translators for the multiple languages spoken by compact migrants. State government officials recommended that grants be made available to help pay for interpreters until more FAS community members graduate from college and become qualified. The officials also said that interpreters should be encouraged to develop greater proficiency in fields such as law and medicine so that they can serve in multiple capacities. In addition, the officials identified a need for more in-person interpreters in hospitals and medical facilities. State government officials noted that FAS communities speak many different languages, and they acknowledged the need for a culturally-specific approach for each group. They said that, in addition to translating content, interpreters should fully explain the context of programs to ensure compact migrants’ understanding. FAS community members proposed the creation of a group of paid, full-time interpreters and a language certification requirement to guarantee the availability and quality of language services. Create “one-stop shops” with information and resources for compact migrants. State government officials and health care providers identified a need for one-stop shops—centers that serve compact migrant populations—in areas that do not currently have them. According to stakeholders in a U.S. state without such a center, a one-stop shop could reduce duplication and increase coordination among the many groups that serve the FAS community. Other stakeholders suggested that each state government establish a single point of contact for compact migrants. FAS community members and nonprofit representatives identified a need for a cultural center or other physical space that could be used to hold events and provide centralized communication and resources for the FAS community in the Pacific Northwest, in particular. Emphasize community-based approaches to supporting compact migrants. State government officials noted the importance of community- based approaches to supporting compact migrants. For example, stakeholders recommended hiring community health workers from the FAS population to engage with their communities in U.S. areas. According to the officials, community health workers, as known and trusted entities, are better sources of information for FAS communities than any government agency. The officials also acknowledged the importance of engaging with FAS community leaders (including embassy or consular officials and church leaders) in U.S. areas to successfully connect with FAS community members. Provide compact migrant–dedicated housing. State government officials, FAS consulate officials, and nonprofit organization representatives discussed discrimination that compact migrants experienced in housing. For example, stakeholders in some areas we visited described landlords who failed to maintain or repair housing leased to compact migrants, who targeted compact migrants for evictions, or who avoided renting units to compact migrants. Officials in one state suggested that FAS communities need access to dedicated housing options that align with their community traditions and cultural norms, such as units that can accommodate large or multiple families. Appendix VIII: Nonprofit and Private Sector Organizations Supporting Compact Migrants Nonprofit organizations provide compact migrants with a range of assistance, such as assistance with housing or rent, food, documentation and legal matters, and enrollment in health insurance. Some organizations, such as “one-stop shops” (i.e., centers serving compact migrant populations), serve only compact migrants, while other organizations serve compact migrants among other members of the receiving community. Additionally, some companies that employ compact migrants offer programs intended to help them adjust to life in the United States. The information presented in this appendix is based mainly on documentation provided by the organizations and interviews with their representatives. Nonprofit Organizations That Serve Compact Migrants Only Several nonprofit organizations in U.S. areas that we visited target their services to compact migrants. Two of these organizations—one-stop shops in Hawaii and Guam—aim to support the compact migrant communities by connecting the migrants to existing resources and, in some cases, creating new programs and services to support freely associated state (FAS) communities, according to nonprofit and government officials and documentation. These one-stop shops receive funding from the U.S. Department of the Interior (Interior) as well as other governmental and nongovernmental sources. In Guam, the Micronesian Resource Center One-Stop Shop was developed with input from various communities in Guam and government agencies and launched in October 2015, according to one-stop shop officials and Interior documentation. The one-stop shop has received an Interior grant each year starting in fiscal year 2016. The amount of the grant has steadily increased, rising from $210,000 in fiscal year 2016 to $217,000 in fiscal year 2017, $250,000 in fiscal year 2018, and $267,000 in fiscal year 2019, according to Interior documentation and officials. The one-stop shop employs both case workers and cultural mediators and uses a mobile van to bring services directly to FAS communities, according to one-stop shop officials. These services include outreach to communities, including youths; workshops for parenting and driving; and assistance with lost or replacement documentation. For example, when conflict escalated among compact migrants living in a Guam apartment complex, Interior and Guam officials noted that the one-stop shop worked with police to facilitate meetings and participation in neighborhood watch programs. The one-stop shop has hosted “Welcome to Guam” orientations to educate compact migrants about finding housing, setting up utilities, and opening a bank account in Guam; employees’ rights; medical insurance; deportable offenses; and the danger of human trafficking, according to one-stop shop officials. In Hawaii, the one-stop shop We Are Oceania was established with Interior funding in 2015. The organization provides case management, helping compact migrants to find jobs, address housing or legal issues, and enroll in health insurance through Hawaii’s Premium Assistance Program, according to one-stop shop officials and documentation. We Are Oceania has also provided cultural consultations and trainings to Hawaii public school teachers and service providers to educate them about cultural differences and potential challenges that compact migrants may face, according to nonprofit representatives and documentation. The officials also said that the organization hosts a youth summit and helped open a newcomer welcome center at a middle school. Figure 10 shows photos of the We Are Oceania facility, including desks where compact migrants can apply for health insurance and other services. Other nonprofit organizations were also founded specifically to assist the compact migrant community in navigating various U.S. systems, such as education and health care, and obtaining documentation such as driver’s licenses or Forms I-94 Arrival/Departure Records. The Arkansas Coalition of Marshallese in Springdale, Arkansas, according to representatives of the organization, helps local compact migrants with tasks such as retrieving new Forms I-94 from Customs and Border Protection; translating state driver’s license applications into Marshallese; providing education about diabetes prevention and management; and enrolling compact migrant children in ARKids, the state’s public health insurance program that extends federal health insurance coverage for children younger than 19 years. In 2018, the Micronesian Islander Community Organization in Oregon announced a study among local compact migrants to identify barriers that they faced in the region, such as a lack of certified health care interpreters. Additionally, the Oregon-based COFA Alliance National Network conducts policy and advocacy work aimed at supporting compact migrant communities, according to representatives of the organization. Nonprofit Organizations That Serve Compact Migrants Charities, legal services, and other programs assist compact migrants and other eligible individuals in selected U.S. areas. For example: In Hawaii, the Salvation Army of the Hawaiian and Pacific Islands provides assistance with rent, utilities, and food; interpreters to assist non–English speakers with accessing health and legal services; and digital literacy training (e.g., how to use email), according to Salvation Army officials. In Guam, the Salvation Army Guam Corps provides assistance with rent, utilities, food, and clothing and also provides case management services, according to Guam officials. In the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), Karidat provides a food pantry, clothing assistance, rental assistance, and victim advocacy, among other services. (Fig. 11 shows a public bulletin board and donated clothing in Karidat’s offices.) In 2018, compact migrants made up 20.4 percent of individuals accessing Karidat’s food pantry and 39.5 percent of individuals receiving clothing assistance, according to Karidat estimates. The Hawaii and Arkansas chapters of the Legal Aid Society provide legal services to local residents, such as victims of crime, according to Hawaii and Arkansas officials. According to Hawaii chapter officials, they served 569 compact migrants (8.5 percent of their total clients) in fiscal year 2019. The Asian Family Center within Oregon’s Immigrant and Refugee Community Organization provides similar services, including defense for parties engaged in deportation removal proceedings, according to representatives of the organization. Private Sector Organizations Some employers with compact migrant workers provide employee services, programs, or accommodations specific to these workers’ needs. In Arkansas, Tyson, Inc., provides written materials in Marshallese and operates a program that appoints chaplains to help the company’s Marshallese workers, as well as other non–U.S. citizen employees, navigate life in the United States generally and in Arkansas specifically, according to private sector representatives. Additionally, the representatives told us that the company provides free classes in financial literacy and English as a second language to its employees, including compact migrants. Another company in the region, Cargill Protein, has partnered with local nongovernmental organizations to educate its compact migrant employees about U.S. driving laws and help prepare them for driver’s license tests. Appendix IX: Review of Academic Studies of the Workforce Effects of Migration Similar to Compact Migration We examined academic studies published from 2015 through 2019 to determine what is known about the likely effects of migration similar to compact migration on the workforces of receiving countries. Because we were unable to identify articles published during this period that focused specifically on compact migration, we focused our search on studies examining the effects of migration by other groups with relatively few skills. Studies that we reviewed sometimes reached differing conclusions about whether migration is associated with a negative, neutral, or positive effect on the employment and earnings of nonmigrant workers in the receiving countries. Some studies found that migration may result in worsened employment prospects or wages—particularly in the short term and if the influx of migrants is sudden—for nonmigrant workers who are most similar to the migrants in terms of demographics and skills. If the migrant workers are close substitutes for nonmigrants, they may intensify competition for jobs, increasing unemployment and lowering wages for such nonmigrant workers as well as for similar prior migrants. In the case of compact migration, this might include younger and less educated nonmigrants. However, according to other studies and survey papers that we reviewed, nonmigrants, both low and high skill, could benefit as a whole from migration. For example, one study of the effects of migration on 20 countries found that both low- and high-skill nonmigrants clearly benefited from an influx of migrant workers about two-thirds of the time. Nonmigrant workers may benefit from migration if the migrant workers specialize in different skills and vocations than the nonmigrant population, leading to complementary effects from scale and specialization. For example, larger numbers of construction workers may result in greater efficiency and quality in the building of more restaurants and bars, benefitting workers in nonconstruction trades as well as nonmigrant investors and business owners. Institutions may play an important role in determining the effects of migration on the receiving country’s workforce. For example, a study estimating the effect of migrant workers in European Union countries and controlling for institutional and noninstitutional factors showed that the effect of migrants varied between countries, driven in part by differences in their institutional environment, such as the extent of unemployment insurance, fiscal redistribution, and government spending on services and public goods. This study found that, while fiscal redistribution to migrant workers through taxation and unemployment benefits somewhat worsens outcomes for nonmigrants, this effect is often outweighed by the economic contribution of these migrants. Distinctions in statistical methodologies and assumptions may explain studies’ seemingly contradictory conclusions about the effects of migration on the workforce of receiving countries. According to a survey paper reviewing other previously published work, the statistical controls selected for studies of the impact of migration can result in subtle but economically important distinctions in what the studies attempt to measure, such as the total effects of migration on a given region or the effects of migration on a specific group (e.g., a particular education or skill group). According to this and a second survey paper we reviewed, contradictory conclusions may also result from differing assumptions about factors such as the extent to which migrants “downskill” (compete for jobs for which they may be overqualified) and, therefore, about the nonmigrants that should be used as a comparison group to examine the effect of migrants of a particular skill and education level. According to a third survey paper we reviewed, studies also vary in whether they measure the shorter- or longer-term effects of migration; the survey found that negative effects are more often reported when studies measure migration’s shorter-term effects. Academic journal articles that we examined also discuss the potential fiscal effect of migration. Several studies argue that evaluations of migration’s fiscal effect should consider the potential effects over multiple generations and should also consider the indirect fiscal effect of migrants’ influence on native workers. For example, a panel discussion report of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine states that descendants of immigrants are often studied only as children, in cross- sectional data providing a point-in-time snapshot. As a result, according to the report, the average immigrant household is counted as a net fiscal burden in part because young children of immigrants, like the children of natives, receive public education. The report stated that studying the descendants of immigrants as they complete their education, become workers, and start paying taxes provides a more complete measure of migration’s fiscal effect, because such an analysis may include not only the cost of their education but also the delayed fiscal benefits of that education: larger tax payments made possible by the investment in human capital that education represents. Another paper we reviewed argues that because migrant workers can positively influence the upward mobility of native workers, the higher taxable income from these native workers should be considered, in addition to the low taxable income of the migrants, to avoid negatively biasing the estimated fiscal effect of migrants. Appendix X: Compact Migrant Eligibility for, and Access to, REAL ID–Compliant Identification The REAL ID Act, passed by Congress in 2005, set minimum document requirements and issuance standards for driver’s licenses and personal identification cards. The act also prohibits federal agencies from accepting for certain purposes driver’s licenses and identification cards from states that do not meet the act’s minimum standards. Citizens of the freely associated states (FAS)—the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and the Republic of Palau—have always been eligible for REAL ID–compliant driver’s licenses or identification. However, the term of the licenses’ or identification’s validity and the documents that the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) required to establish compact migrants’ identity have varied over time. Currently, compact migrants are eligible for full-term REAL ID–compliant identification. Since September 2019, they have been required to present an unexpired FAS passport and the most recent Form I-94 Arrival/Departure Record (Form I-94) as evidence of identity to obtain the identification. Compact Migrant Eligibility for, and Access to, REAL ID–Compliant Identification DHS regulations previously required compact migrants to provide documents they were not required to have. Before September 2019, DHS required compact migrants applying for REAL ID–compliant identification to present, in addition to their unexpired foreign passport and Form I-94, either an unexpired U.S. visa (affixed to the passport) or an employment authorization document (EAD). However, under the compacts of free association, compact migrants are not required to obtain a visa or an EAD. On September 4, 2019, DHS modified its policy, designating an unexpired passport from one of the FAS countries, in combination with an individual’s most recent Form I-94, as acceptable evidence of identity that compact migrants may present to obtain REAL ID–compliant identification. Federal law previously restricted the term of the REAL ID–compliant identification that compact migrants could receive. Before December 2018, compact migrants were eligible to receive temporary, limited-term REAL ID–compliant identification, valid until the expiration date on their EAD, which could be a maximum of 5 years, according to DHS officials. In December 2018, the REAL ID Act Modification for Freely Associated States Act made FAS citizens eligible for full-term REAL ID–compliant identification. Since then, compact migrants have been eligible for full- term REAL ID–compliant identification, valid for the maximum number of years for any license or identification as set by individual U.S. states and territories, according to DHS officials. Compact Migrant Challenges Related to REAL ID–Compliant Identification In several areas that we visited, compact migrant communities described challenges they had experienced in obtaining or renewing their REAL ID– compliant identification. Some compact migrants spoke of difficulty due to the requirement to present a visa or an EAD as evidence of identity. In one location, FAS community members said that other members of the community had lost employment on a military base because they were unable to obtain REAL ID–compliant identification. (We heard many of these observations before September 2019, when DHS modified the policy that required applicants for REAL ID–compliant identification to present a visa or EAD.) Some compact migrants reported being unable to obtain REAL ID– compliant identification for other reasons. number on their current foreign passports. When an FAS citizen’s passport expires and he or she renews it while in the United States, the new passport has a different number than the former passport number displayed on the FAS citizen’s Form I-94. Appendix XI: Comments from the Government of Hawaii Appendix XII: Comments from the Government of Guam GAO Comments 1. Section 104(e)(9)(A) of the amended compacts’ enabling legislation authorized the President of the United States, at the request of the Governor of Guam or the Governor of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), to reduce, release, or waive all or part of any amounts owed by the Guam or CNMI government (or either government’s autonomous agencies or instrumentalities), respectively, to any department, agency, independent agency, office, or instrumentality of the United States. According to section 104(e)(9)(B)(iv), that authority expired on February 28, 2005. 2. The Census Bureau data that we report reflect a definition of “compact migrants” that includes citizens of the Federated States of Micronesia (Micronesia), Republic of the Marshall Islands (Marshall Islands), and Republic of Palau (Palau) who entered the United States after 1986 (from Micronesia and the Marshall Islands) or 1994 (from Palau) and their U.S.-born children (biological, adopted, and step-) and grandchildren younger than 18 years. Appendix XIII: Comments from the Government of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Appendix XIV: Comments from the Government of Arkansas GAO Comments 1. The Arkansas Department of Education’s data estimating the number of compact migrant students at 4,175 is based on students’ ethnicity (Hawaiian and Pacific Islander) in the 2018-2019 school year. As a result, Arkansas’s estimate may include students who are not Marshallese. In addition, Arkansas’s estimate may include second- generation U.S. citizens, including Marshallese children born in the United States to Marshallese parents who were also born in the United States. The American Community Survey data that we report reflect a definition of “compact migrants” that includes only citizens of the Federated States of Micronesia (Micronesia), Republic of the Marshall Islands (Marshall Islands), and Republic of Palau (Palau) who entered the United States after 1986 (from Micronesia and the Marshall Islands) or 1994 (from Palau) and their U.S.-born children (biological, adopted, and step-) and grandchildren younger than 18 years. The 5,895 compact migrants that the Census Bureau estimated resided in Arkansas during the period 2013 to 2017 (a different time period from that of the data cited by the government of Arkansas) includes only adults and children who met those criteria. We believe that the Census Bureau data are sufficiently reliable for our purposes of estimating the number of compact migrants in U.S. areas. However, our report includes a discussion of stakeholder concerns that the compact migrant population in Arkansas may be undercounted. 2. The population estimate cited in the published study from Arkansas is based in part on a 2013 statement by a Marshallese consulate official. The Arkansas Department of Education estimated there were 4,175 Hawaiian and Pacific Islander students in Arkansas schools in the 2018-2019 school year. 3. Costs related to compact migration in U.S. areas not considered affected jurisdictions are outside the scope of our review. 4. We updated our report to reflect the data that the government of Arkansas cites for the period 1997 to 2019. Appendix XV: Comments from the Government of Oregon GAO Comments 1. We have previously reported on defense issues in the Federated States of Micronesia and the Republic of the Marshall Islands (Marshall Islands). For more information about the United States’ right to use part of the Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall Islands for missile tests and space tracking operations, see GAO, Foreign Relations: Kwajalein Atoll Is the Key U.S. Defense Interest in Two Micronesian Nations, GAO-02-119 (Washington, D.C.: Jan. 22, 2002). For more information about the Marshall Islands’ Nuclear Claims Trust Fund, see GAO, Marshall Islands: Status of the Nuclear Claims Trust Fund, GAO/NSIAD-92-229 (Washington, D.C.: Sept. 25, 1992). 2. Our report provides some information about contributions by compact migrants, including qualitative statements about their budgetary, workforce, and community contributions as well as high-level data on their average per-capita income (see app. IV). We have added the government of Oregon’s statements about the contributions of compact migrants to our report. 3. As our report notes, the affected jurisdictions are defined in the amended compacts’ implementing legislation, which also establishes funding for the associated compact impact grants for those jurisdictions. 4. We made revisions in our report to help direct readers to stakeholders’ suggestions for improving experiences or outcomes of compact migration, presented in appendix VII. Appendix XVI: Comments from the Government of Washington GAO Comments 1. Our report incorporates the results of our interviews with members of compact migrant communities, including their reasons for migrating to U.S. areas, workforce challenges and other challenges they face, and their contributions to U.S. communities. Our report also includes these and other stakeholders’ suggestions for improving experiences or outcomes of compact migration (see app. VII). 2. We have previously reported on defense issues in the Federated States of Micronesia and the Republic of the Marshall Islands (Marshall Islands). For more information about the United States’ right to use part of the Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall Islands for missile tests and space tracking operations, see GAO, Foreign Relations: Kwajalein Atoll Is the Key U.S. Defense Interest in Two Micronesian Nations, GAO-02-119 (Washington, D.C.: Jan. 22, 2002). For more information about the Marshall Islands’ Nuclear Claims Trust Fund, see GAO, Marshall Islands: Status of the Nuclear Claims Trust Fund, GAO/NSIAD-92-229 (Washington, D.C.: Sept. 25, 1992). Appendix XVII: Comments from the Government of the Federated States of Micronesia GAO Comments (from Micronesia and the Marshall Islands) or 1994 (from Palau) and their U.S.-born children (biological, adopted, and step-) and grandchildren younger than 18 years. Given this definition, any individual older than 18 years who was not born in an FAS would not be counted as a compact migrant in the Census Bureau enumerations or the American Community Survey data in this report. 8. Table 10 in appendix II of our report includes estimates of the number of compact migrants in states with fewer than 1,000 estimated compact migrants, except when the data were suppressed by the Census Bureau or the number was unreportable because the margin of error exceeded the estimate. 9. Our report notes that some FAS citizens move to U.S. areas to join the military and that the FASs have a high rate of U.S. military service, according to FAS officials and Department of State documentation. 10. The amended compacts’ implementing legislation permitted the affected jurisdictions (Hawaii, Guam, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, and American Samoa) to submit compact impact reports to the Secretary of the Interior. The definition of “affected jurisdictions” in the legislation did not include any mainland states. 11. Our report notes that compact migrants work in professional industries, including jobs in government and education. 12. We updated our report to include information about the locations of COFA Alliance National Network chapters in states other than Oregon. Appendix XVIII: Comments from the Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands GAO Comments 1. Our report describes policies allowing compact migrants to access in- state tuition at colleges and universities in some U.S. areas but does not include a comprehensive description of such policies in all U.S. areas. 2. Our report describes this and other challenges related to Form I-94 and includes freely associated state consular officials’ recommendations to their citizens experiencing this challenge (see app. VII). Appendix XIX: Comments from the Government of the Republic of Palau GAO Comments Pacific in the 2005 legislation was an error, it had no impact on FAS citizens’ eligibility for limited-term REAL ID–compliant identification. Appendix XX: GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgements GAO Contact Staff Acknowledgments David Gootnick, (202) 512-3149 or [email protected] In addition to the contact named above, Emil Friberg (Assistant Director), Caitlin Mitchell (Analyst-in-Charge), Topher Hoffmann, Andrew Kurtzman, Reid Lowe, Moon Parks, and Nicole Willems made key contributions to this report. Kathryn Bernet, Justin Fisher, Rebecca Gambler, Christopher Keblitis, Ty Mitchell, Mary Moutsos, and Michael Simon provided technical assistance.

  



đŸȘ From LongCamel-7b-32k:



The report examines the effects of migration from the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and the Republic of Palau to the United States. It estimates the number of compact migrants in U.S. areas and describes recent trends in compact migration. It also summarizes the reported costs related to compact migration in three affected jurisdictions and describes effects of compact migration on governments, workforces, and societies in these and other U.S. areas.



## References 

and Appreciations to: 



- [LLaMA2](https://ai.meta.com/llama)

- [long-alpaca](https://github.com/dvlab-research/LongLoRA)

- [QuAC](https://arxiv.org/abs/1808.07036)

- [ShareGPT](https://sharegpt.com/)

- [BookSum](https://github.com/salesforce/booksum)

- [FLAN](https://github.com/google-research/FLAN)