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https://github.com/iba4/rust_notes
Notes on almost every topic from the book : https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/
https://github.com/iba4/rust_notes
notes rust rust-lang rust-language rust-notes
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Notes on almost every topic from the book : https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/
- Host: GitHub
- URL: https://github.com/iba4/rust_notes
- Owner: IBA4
- Created: 2020-03-26T07:05:58.000Z (almost 5 years ago)
- Default Branch: master
- Last Pushed: 2024-04-18T09:25:33.000Z (9 months ago)
- Last Synced: 2024-10-12T13:22:24.052Z (3 months ago)
- Topics: notes, rust, rust-lang, rust-language, rust-notes
- Homepage:
- Size: 35.2 KB
- Stars: 11
- Watchers: 3
- Forks: 2
- Open Issues: 0
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Metadata Files:
- Readme: README.md
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README
# Notes on Rust programming language, from *[the book](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/)*
I just typed what I felt like should be noted while reading *the book* simultaneously.
> Install `rustup` as a toolchain along with `cargo`.
> Don't be afraid of compiler errors. They are very helpful and give very good information.
[TOC]
## Cargo
- very good package manager for rust
```sh
cargo new #create new project (binary)
cargo build #compile and check
cargo run #compile(if-not) and run the binary program
```
## variables
- by default, variable is immutable.
> make it mutable by `mut`
```rust
let mut x = 5;
```
### constant vs immutable variables
- use `const` for constants because they are not meant to be changed ever.
- can't use `const` for values computed at runtime. like result of function calls.
- naming convention : use uppercase with underscores.
```rust
const MAX_POINTS: u32 = 1000_00;
```
### Shadowing
- *shadowing* is declaring a new variable with the same
name as a previous variable.
```rust
let x = 5;
let x = x+1;// don't use mut!
```
- it is not reassigning like we do with `mut` variables.
- *benefit* : we don't have to create a variable with different type for same data. If we need a num but the input is in string. we can use the same name to get the numeric value because it is literally *redeclaring*.
## Data types
> rust is *statically typed*
- rust usually guesses the type but we can explicitly tell it , ob.
### Scalars
#### Integers
- signed i8 (integer8-bit) up to 128-bit or isize(architecture size)
- similar but **u**8
##### literals
- 98_222 = 98222 (!you can use _ as separator)
- 0xfff hex, Oo77 oct, 0b1111_000 binary, b'A' Byte(u8 only).
- while using `--release` flag, rust won't check for *integer overflow* . It performs *two's compliment wrapping*. ex: for u8 , 256 becomes 0,
- prevents *panic*
- you can use standard library type `Wrapping` for explicitly wrapping
#### floating points
- default is f64, else we have f32.
### Numeric operations
- +, - , * , / , % . Same as usual
### Boolean
- `true` or `false`
### characters
- `char` : 4 bytes , Unicode Scalar Values range from
U+0000 to U+D7FF and U+E000 to U+10FFFF inclusive
### Compound Types
#### Tuple type
```rust
let tup: (i32, f64, u8) = (500, 6.4, 1);
let (x, y, z) = tup;// pattern matching : x = 500
let first_element = tup.0;
```
- *destructuring*: use pattern matching to get value breaks single tuple into multiple parts
- we can use (.) followed by index too!!
#### Array type
- ***Fixed sized***
```rust
let a: [i32; 5] = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
let a = [3; 5]; //is same as
let a = [3, 3, 3, 3, 3];// 5 elements
```
- stack based , not as flexible as vectors
- accessing using index `a[index]`
- gives `index out of bounds` error if out of bounds
## Functions
> convention: use snake case.
### Function parameters
- must declare type of each parameters
```rust
fn another_function(x: i32, y: i32) {...}
```
### Statements and Expressions
> rust is an expression-based language
- `let x = (let y = 4);` is invalid unlike C because let y = 4 doesn't yield a vlaue ; nothing to bind for x
- calling a function or macro , block creating new scopes ,{}, is an expression
```rust
let y = {
let x = 3;
x+1// look at this. NO SEMICOLON!!
} // this block/scope returns value 4
```
### Function with return values
- we declare type of return values after an arrow (->)
- *implicitly* : return value is the last expression. keep in mind the facts about statement vs expressions.
- *explicitly* : we can use `return` keyword
```rust
fn main() {
let x = plus_one(5);
println!("The value of x is: {}", x);
}
fn plus_one(x: i32) -> i32 {
x + 1 // Again no semicolon here.
}
```
- no evaluation leads to `()` empty tuple.
## Comments
- no multi-line comment syntax.
- continue `//` for each line.
- `///` *documentation comment* : generates HTML ; used with `crates`
## Control Flow
### if/else if expressions
- Same as C or JS for syntax
- condition must be `bool`.
- Blocks of code associated with the conditions in if expressions are sometimes called `arms`
#### Using if in a let statement
```rust
let number = if condition { 5 } else { "six" }; // error: both arms should evaluate to same data type
```
## Loops
### loop{}
- simple just loops code inside the block
```rust
let result = loop {
counter += 1;
if counter == 10 {
break counter * 2;
}
};
```
- use this with `break`.
- use case : One of the uses of a loop is to retry an operation you know might fail, such
as checking whether a thread has completed its job. However, you might
need to pass the result of that operation to the rest of your code.
### while loops
- same as C/JS.
## for loops
```rust
let a = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50];
for element in a.iter() {
println!("the value is: {}", element);
}
```
- Range based: `for number in (1..4).rev()` . `rev()` is to reverse
# Unique features in Rust
## Ownership
> How rust lays data in memory
> ensures memory safety without garbage collector
- In other languages, programmer must explicitly handle the memory (allocation & deletion)
- In rust, we have ownership concept.
### stack vs heap
- We use heap when the size of values at compile time is unknown.
- pushing in stack is faster because OS never has to search for a place to store new data unlike heap where OS has to search for space big enough to hold data
- accessing data in heap is slower because we have to follow a pointer to get there.
> so cleaning up unused data , minimizing the amount of duplicate data so that we don't run out of space are all problems that ownership addresses.
### Ownership rules
- Each value Rust has a variable that’s called its `owner`.
- There can be only one `owner` at a time.
- When the owner goes out of scope, the value will be dropped.
### variable scopes
- Block scoped. like in JS/C++
### String types and heap
- `String` types are allocated in heaps.
- `let s = String::from("hello");` creating `String` from `string literal`
- `string literals` cannot be mutated but `Strings` can. Because we know the size of literals and can be hardcoded in the program. `Strings are growable`.
### Memory and Allocation
- memory must be created and destroyed simultaneously. because there is no garbage collector; doing this is very hard. `allocate` and `free`
- rust is automatically returned once the variable goes out of scope. Calls `drop` function.
### data interaction : Move
```rust
let s1 = String::from("hello");
let s2 = s1;
```
- Here, a stack is created with (ptr,len,capacity) ptr pointing to the heap of memory with data(hello)
- `s2 = s1` : copies the ptr of s1(stack) to s2 ; pointing to same heap.
- **But**, when we go out of scope, both of them will try to free the same memory. Oops! `double free` error.
> Rust manages this by making s1 invalid , which is what it calls `move` . Only s2 can free the memory.
### data interaction : Clone
- `let s2 = s1.clone()` , `deep`ly copies the heap data not just the stack data.
### Stack only data: Copy
```rust
let x = 5;
let y = x;
```
- As we have learned, these basic types are stored in stack at compile time. So no need of any allocation,freeing or making it invalid.
- no need of `clone` here.
> we have to keep in mind the `Copy` and `Drop` traits. Normally all those basic data types have `Copy` trait.
### Ownership and functions
- going into function is going out of scope. non `Copy` traits are borrowed by the function and made invalid.
### Return Values and Scope
- multiple values can be returned using tuples
- Just like function taking the ownership , returning it gives the ownership back. *It is just changing the scopes*
- If no one takes the ownership , going out of scope just destroys it.
```rust
fn main() {
let s1 = String::from("hello");
let (s2, len) = calculate_length(s1);
println!("The length of '{}' is {}.", s2, len);
}
fn calculate_length(s: String) -> (String, usize) {
let length = s.len(); // len() returns the length of a String
(s, length)
}
```
### References and Borrowing
- So to avoid all those hassle, we can use *refrence* variables. `&String`
- We call it *borrowing* , like in real world
- also has dereferencing with *deference operator*
> To make the reference variable mutable, we use `&mut` for `mut` variable
- We cannot borrow mutable reference more than once at a time in a particular scope.
- this is to prevent *data race* :
- two or more pointers accessing same data
- At least one is being used to write
- no mechanism being used to synchronize access to the data
- Just use curly braces { ... } to create a new scope.😉
- *We also cannot have a mutable reference while we have an immutable one*
- ```
let mut s = String::from("hello");
let r1 = &s; // no problem
let r2 = &s; // no problem
println!("{} and {}", r1, r2);
// variables r1 and r2 will not be used after this point
let r3 = &mut s; // no problem
println!("{}", r3);
```
### Dangling references
- *`lifetimes`* help us a lot for such *dangling pointers*: pointers referencing a location in memory that may have been given to someone else.
### The Slice type
- while slicing byte by byte, we are normally working on starting index and ending index. Though these indices may be found, we can't possibly use this since the state of `String` that we are working on might change it's state.
#### String Slices
```rust
let s = String::from("hello world");
let hello = &s[0..5];
let world = &s[6..11];
```
- new slice with different pointer is created.
- `[starting_index..ending_index]`
- `[0..2]` <=> `[..2]` ; `[3..length_of_string]` <=> `[3..]` ; `[0..length_of_string]` <=> `[..]`
- these types of slices are returned/used as `&str` (string slice) types
- `&str` are immutable.
> And.. String literals are `&str`.
- **Don't mess up with immutable/mutable borrowing rule**
- UTF-8 encoded text might be multibyte. So we need to take care of that too
#### String Slices as parameters
- It is better to pass string slice `&string[..]` (whole string) as parameter instead of whole string `&string`.
#### Other slices
- We can use slices for arrays too `let slice = &array[1..3];`
## Using Structs to structure related data
```rust
struct User {
username: String,
email: String,
sign_in_count: u64,
active: bool,
} // struct definition
```
- data inside curly braces are called `fields`
```rust
let user1 = User {
//key:value
email: String::from("[email protected]"),
username: String::from("someusername123"),
active: true,
sign_in_count: 1,
};// creaing an instance of the User struct
```
- To change the value, instance must be mutable too!
### Fields init Shorthand
- When the parameters are same as the key , we can omit that
```rust
fn build_user(email: String, username: String) -> User {
User {
email, // instead of email:email;
username,
active: true,
sign_in_count: 1,
}
}
```
### Creating instances from Other Instance
> `struct update syntax`
```rust
let user2 = User {
email: String::from("[email protected]"),
username: String::from("anotherusername567"),
..user1 // rest of the values are same as that of user1
};
```
### Create different Types using `tuple structs`
> `Tuple structs` : structs without named fields
```rust
struct Color(i32, i32, i32);
let black = Color(0, 0, 0);
```
- You cannot pass many `tuple structs` with same fields as a parameter for a function : Behaves like tuples
- again, keep in mind the `lifetime` parameter. (Explained later)
### Printing structure for debugging
```rust
// here add this. This is called deriving Debug Trait
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Rectangle {
width: u32,
height: u32,
}
fn main() {
let rect1 = Rectangle {
width: 30,
height: 50,
};
println!("rect1 is {:?}", rect1); //Notice the :? inside
// prints rect1 is Rectangle { width: 30, height: 50 }
}
```
- `println!("rect1 is {:?#}", rect1);` even prints with line breaks (pretty print)
### Methods
#### Defining Methods
```rust
//after defining struct in above code
impl Rectangle {
fn area(&self) -> u32 {
self.width * self.height
}
```
- `&self` knows that it is `&Rectangle` because it is implemented inside `imp Rectangle` context.
- `&self` because we want to *borrow* the ownership when we have to read.
- we'd use `&mut self` to change the instance that we’ve called the method on as part of what the method does.
#### Where's the -> operator?
- Rust has *automatic referencing and dereferencing* while calling methods. so it automatically adds in `&`, `&mut`, or `*` so object matches the signature of the
method.
- This automatic referencing behavior works
because methods have a clear receiver—the type of self
#### Methods with more parameters
- `rect1.can_hold(&rect2));`. here one instance has a method taking another instance as a parameter.
- To use this we add this in the `imp Rectangle` block:
```rust
fn can_hold(&self, other: &Rectangle) -> bool {
...
}
```
> so `&self` makes rust clear which instance it is taking about.
#### Associated Functions
> useful for creating *Constructors*
```rust
impl Rectangle {
fn square(size: u32) -> Rectangle {
Rectangle { width: size, height: size }
}
}
```
- to call this we use `let sq = Rectangle::square(3)`.
- The function is namespaced by the struct
#### Multiple impl Blocks
> We can use many such `impl { }` blocks for the same struct. (useful for generic types and traits)
## Enums and pattern matching
- *enums* : enumerations : types that enumerates its possible values.
### Defining an enum
```rust
enum IpAddressKind {
V4,
V6,
}
```
- `let four = IpAddrKind::V4;` : variants of the enum are namespaced under its identifier and we use `::` to resolve the namespace.
- enums are useful when used along with structs since an enum is a type like this:
```rust
struct IpAddr {
kind: IpAddrKind,
address: String,
}
fn main() {
let home = IpAddr {
kind: IpAddrKind::V4,
address: String::from("127.0.0.1"),
};
}
```
- But we can use it directly too like this:
```rust
enum IpAddressKind {
V4(u8,u8,u8,u8),
V6(String),
}
let home = IpAddr::V4(192,168,1,1);
let loopback = IpAddr::V6(String::from("::1"));
```
> checkout standard library for IpAddr
- The real benefit of enum rather than using multiple structs is to define a function. Remember `impl` from structure using `&self`.
### *Option* Enum and its advantages over Null values
- There is no `Null` value in rust. Why?
>The problem with null values is that if you try to use a null value as a not-null value, you’ll get an error of some kind. Because this null or not-null property is pervasive, it’s extremely easy to make this kind of error.
- But *null* concept is still useful so rust has an *Option* 😉. It has `Option`enum for that.
```rust
enum Option {
Some(T),
None,
}
```
- Being so useful, it can be used without bringing it to scope. which means we can use `Some(T)` and `None` without `Option::` prefix.
- `let some_number = Some(5);` we know what value is present
- `let absent_number: Option = None;` we don't have a value; essentially a null value.
> **Remember! `Option` and `T` are not the same type**
- The reason why `Option` is that we are explicitly deciding that we are going to handle cases that might have null or some value.
- So to use a value of type `T` from `Option` when the code is handled , what control flow operator can be used ? *match* operator
## `match` control flow operator
- compares values against a series of pattern.
- Patterns can be made up of literal values,
variable names, wildcards, and many other thing
- code associated with the pattern matched first will be executed.
```rust
enum UsState {
Alabama,
Alaska,
// --snip--
}
enum Coin {
Penny,
Nickel,
Dime,
Quarter(UsState),
}
value_in_cents(Coin::Quarter(UsState::Alaska)); //will match with
fn value_in_cents(coin: Coin) -> u8 {
match coin {
Coin::Penny => 1,
Coin::Nickel => 5,
Coin::Dime => 10,
Coin::Quarter(state) => { // will match with this
println!("State quarter from {:?}!", state);
25
}
}
}
```
- as we can see, we can match the enums within the enums.
#### Matching with Option
- to get the value of T from Option we use it like this:
```rust
fn plus_one(x: Option) -> Option {
match x {
None => None,
Some(i) => Some(i + 1), // plus_one(five) below matched this
}
}
let five = Some(5);
let six = plus_one(five);
```
- We pass *Some* value to match an `Option` type and match it.
> Matches are exhaustive : So there must be an *match `arm` for every possible cases. Rust will throw error otherwise. It's good. Handles everything. But there is a solution for that too. (`_` palceholder)
#### The `_` placeholder
- whenever we don't want/have to list all possible value , we can use `_` pattern and link it `=>` with `()`:a unit value which is basically nothing.
```rust
let some_u8_value = Some(0u8);
match some_u8_value {
Some(3) => println!("three"),
_ => (),
}
```
### if let control flow
- the above code is equivalent to:
```rust
if let Some(3) = some_u8_value {
println!("three");
}
```
- We want to do something with the `Some(3)` match but do nothing with any other `Some` value or the None value
- works the same way as `match` . However, we loose the exhaustive checking.
- also works with the same logic that we used for matching enums within enums