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https://github.com/ismet55555/certified-kubernetes-administrator-notes

https://www.cncf.io/certification/cka/
https://github.com/ismet55555/certified-kubernetes-administrator-notes

certification cka kubernetes

Last synced: 4 days ago
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https://www.cncf.io/certification/cka/

Host: GitHub
URL: https://github.com/ismet55555/certified-kubernetes-administrator-notes
Owner: ismet55555
Created: 2022-03-09T03:19:54.000Z (almost 3 years ago)
Default Branch: main
Last Pushed: 2024-08-01T09:29:17.000Z (6 months ago)
Last Synced: 2024-10-17T21:32:42.168Z (3 months ago)
Topics: certification, cka, kubernetes
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Stars: 337
Watchers: 18
Forks: 93
Open Issues: 0
Metadata Files:
- Readme: README.md

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https://www.cncf.io/certification/cka/

Certified Kubernetes Administrator (CKA) Notes

- [Exam](#exam)
- [Outline](#outline)
- [Software / Environment](#software-environment)
- [Exam Environment Setup](#exam-environment-setup)
- [Terminal Shortcuts/Aliases](#terminal-shortcutsaliases)
- [Terminal Command Completion](#terminal-command-completion)
- [VIM](#vim)
- [Pasting Text Into VIM](#pasting-text-into-vim)
- [`tmux`](#tmux)
- [Mouse Support (Optional)](#mouse-support-optional)
- [Preparation](#Preparation)
- [Study Resources](#study-resources)
- [Practice](#practice)
- [Architecture](#architecture)
- [Control Plane](#control-plane)
- [Nodes](#nodes)
- [Kubernetes CLI tools](#kubernetes-cli-tools)
- [Installation](#installation)
- [`containerd` Installation (if needed)](#containerd-installation-if-needed)
- [`kubelet`, `kubeadm`, and `kubectl` CLI tools](#kubelet-kubeadm-and-kubectl-cli-tools)
- [`kubeadm` Cluster](#kubeadm-cluster)
- [`minikube` Cluster](#minikube-cluster)
- [Namespaces (ns)](#namespaces-ns)
- [Working with Namespaces](#working-with-namespaces)
- [Cluster Management](#cluster-management)
- [High Availability](#high-availability)
- [Management Tools](#management-tools)
- [Safely Draining a Node](#safely-draining-a-node)
- [Upgrading Kubernetes and Tools](#upgrading-kubernetes-and-tools)
- [Control Plane Node](#control-plane-node)
- [Worker Node](#worker-node)
- [Backing up and Restoring `etcd` Cluster Data](#backing-up-and-restoring-etcd-cluster-data)
- [Back Up `etcd` Database](#back-up-etcd-database)
- [Restore `etcd` Database](#restore-etcd-database)
- [Object Management](#object-management)
- [Declarative vs. Imperative Methods](#declarative-vs-imperative-methods)
- [Role-Based Access Control (RBAC) Authorization](#role-based-access-control-rbac-authorization)
- [Role Objects](#role-objects)
- [Role](#role)
- [ClusterRole](#clusterrole)
- [RoleBinding](#rolebinding)
- [ClusterRoleBinding](#clusterrolebinding)
- [User Permissions](#user-permissions)
- [Working With Permissions](#working-with-permissions)
- [Service Accounts (sa)](#service-accounts-sa)
- [Inspecting Resource Usage](#inspecting-resource-usage)
- [User API Authentication with Certificate](#user-api-authentication-with-certificate)
- [Pods and Containers](#pods-and-containers)
- [Application Configuration](#application-configuration)
- [ConfigMaps (cm)](#configmaps-cm)
- [Secrets](#secrets)
- [Managing Container Resources](#managing-container-resources)
- [Monitoring Container Health with Probes](#monitoring-container-health-with-probes)
- [Liveness Probe](#liveness-probe)
- [Startup Probe](#startup-probe)
- [Readiness Probe](#readiness-probe)
- [Self-Healing Pods with Restart Policies](#self-healing-pods-with-restart-policies)
- [Multi-Container Pods](#multi-container-pods)
- [Init Containers](#init-containers)
- [Scheduling in Kubernetes](#scheduling-in-kubernetes)
- [Pod Scheduling Configurations](#pod-scheduling-configurations)
- [`nodeSelector`](#nodeselector)
- [`nodeName`](#nodename)
- [Taints and Tolerations](#taints-and-Tolerations)
- [Affinity](#affinity)
- [DaemonSets (ds)](#daemonsets-ds)
- [Static Pods](#static-pods)
- [Deployments](#deployments)
- [Scaling Applications with Deployments](#scaling-applications-with-deployments)
- [Rolling Updates with Deployments](#rolling-updates-with-deployments)
- [Networking](#networking)
- [Network Model](#network-model)
- [Container Network Interface (CNI) Plugins](#container-network-interface-cni-plugins)
- [Domain Name System (DNS) in Kubernetes](#domain-name-system-dns-in-kubernetes)
- [NetworkPolicies (netpol)](#networkpolicies-netpol)
- [Troubleshooting Network](#troubleshooting-network)
- [Services](#services)
- [Types of Services](#types-of-services)
- [ClusterIP (default)](#clusterip-default)
- [NodePort](#nodeport)
- [LoadBalancer](#loadbalancer)
- [ExternalName](#externalname)
- [Imperatively Creating a Service](#imperatively-creating-a-service)
- [Service DNS Names](#service-dns-names)
- [Ingress (ing)](#ingress-ing)
- [Ingress Controllers](#ingress-controllers)
- [Storage](#storage)
- [Volumes](#volumes)
- [Volume Types](#volume-types)
- [Common Volume Types](#common-volume-types)
- [Persistent Volumes](#persistent-volumes)
- [StorageClass (sc)](#storageclass-sc)
- [PersistantVolume (pv)](#persistantvolume-pv)
- [PersistentVolumeClaim (pvc)](#persistentvolumeclaim-pvc)
- [Troubleshooting](#troubleshooting)
- [Kubernetes API server down](#kubernetes-api-server-down)
- [Node is having problems](#node-is-having-problems)
- [Cluster System Pod is having problems](#cluster-system-pod-is-having-problems)
- [Kubernetes Service Logs](#kubernetes-service-logs)
- [Cluster Component Logs](#cluster-component-logs)
- [Application Issues](#application-issues)
- [Networking Issues](#networking-issues)
- [`netshoot` Tool](#netshoot-tool)
- [Tips and Tricks](#tips-and-tricks)
- [JSONPath](#jsonpath)
- [Example 1: Get Single Value](#example-1-get-single-value)
- [Example 2: Get Values From Multiple Resources](#example-2-get-values-from-multiple-resources)
- [`--output custom-columns`](#-output-custom-columns)

# Exam

## Outline

- https://github.com/cncf/curriculum/blob/master/CKA_Curriculum_v1.23.pdf

## Software / Environment

> As of 05/2022

- Kubernetes version: 1.23
- Ubuntu 20.04
- Terminal
- Bash
- [killer.sh](https://killer.sh/) exam simulator
- Tools available
- `vim` - Text/Code editor
- `tmux` - Terminal multiplexor
- `jq` - Working with JSON format
- `yq` - Working with YAML format
- `base64` - Tool to convert to and from base 64
- more typical linux tools like `grep`, `wc` ...

## Exam Environment Setup

### Terminal Shortcuts/Aliases

The following are useful terminal shortcut aliases/shortcuts to use during the exam.

Add the following to the end of `~/.bashrc` file:

```bashrc
alias k='kubectl # <-- Most general and useful shortcut!

alias kd='kubectl delete --force --grace-period=0 # <-- Fast deletion of resources

alias kc="kubectl create" # <-- Create a resource
alias kc-dry='kubectl create --dry-run=client -o yaml # <-- Create a YAML template of resource

alias kr='kubectl run' # <-- Run/Create a resource (typically pod)
alias kr-dry='kubectl run --dry-run=client -o yaml # <-- Create a YAML template of resource

# If kc-dry and kr-dry do not autocomplete, add the following
export do="dry-run=client -o yaml" # <-- Create the YAML tamplate (usage: $do)
```

The following are some example usages:

```bash
k get nodes -o wide
kc deploymentmy my-dep --image=nginx --replicas=3
kr-dry my-pod --image=nginx --command sleep 36000
kr-dry --image=busybox -- "/bin/sh" "-c" "sleep 36000"
kr --image=busybox -- "/bin/sh" "-c" "sleep 36000" $do
```

### Terminal Command Completion

The following is useful so that you can use the TAB key to auto-complete a command, allowing you to
not always have to remember the exact keyword or spelling.

Type the following into the terminal:

- `kubectl completion bash >> ~/.bashrc` - `kubectl` command completion
- `kubeadm completion bash >> ~/.bashrc` - `kubeadm` command completion
- `exec $SHELL` - Reload shell to enable all added completion

### VIM

The exam will have VIM or nano terminal text editor tools available. If you are using
VIM ensure that you create a `~/.vimrc` file and add the following:

```vimrc
set ts=2 " <-- tabstop - how many spaces is \t worth
set sw=2 " <-- shiftwidth - how many spaces is indentation
set et " <-- expandtab - Use spaces, never \t values
set mouse=a " <-- Enable mouse support
```

Or simply:

```vimrc
set ts=2 sw=2 et mouse=a
```

Also know VIM basics are as follows. Maybe a good idea to take a quick VIM course.

- `vim my-file.yaml` - If file exists, open it, else create it for editing
- `:w` - Save
- `:x` - Save and exit
- `:q` - Exit
- `:q!` - Exit without saving
- `i` - Insert mode, regular text editor mode
- `v` - Visual mode for selection
- `ESC` - Normal mode

#### Pasting Text Into VIM

Often times you will want to paste text or code from the Kubernetes documentation into
into a VIM terminal. If you simply do that, the tabs will do funky things.

Do the following inside VIM before pasting your copied text:

1. In `NORMAL` mode, type: `:set paste`
2. Now enter `INSERT` mode
- You should see `-- INSERT (paste) --` at the bottom of the screen
3. Paste the text
- You can right click with mouse and select Paste or `CTRL + SHIFT + v`

### `tmux`

`tmux` will allow you to use multiple terminal windows in one (aka terminal multiplexing).
Make sure you know the basics for `tmux` usage:

> NOTE: `CTRL + b` is the prefix to anything in `tmux`

- `tmux` - Turn and enter `tmux`
- `CTRL + b "` - Split the window vertically (line is horizontal)
- `CTRL + b %` - Split the window horizontally (line is vertical)
- `CTRL + b ` - Switch between window panes
- `CTRL + b (hold) ` - Resize current window pane
- `CTRL + b z` - Toggle full terminal/screen a pane (good for looking at a full document)
- `CTRL + d` or `exit` - Close a window pane
- ... More (if needed): https://gist.github.com/ismet55555/f78cecaab16d7a0acf786ab6b11c7d56

#### Mouse Support (Optional)

If you want to be able to click and select within tmux and tmux panes, you can also enable
mouse support. This can be useful.

These steps must be done outside of `tmux`

1. Create a `.tmux.conf` file and edit it
- `vim ~/.tmux.conf`

2. Add the configuration, save, and exit file
- `set -g mouse on`

3. Reload tmux configuration
- `tmux source .tmux.conf`

## Preparation

### Study Resources

- [Official Kubernetes Documentation](https://kubernetes.io/docs/home/)
- [A Cloud Guru Course with Practice Exam](https://acloudguru.com/course/certified-kubernetes-administrator-cka)
- [The Kubernetes Book - Nigel Poulton](https://www.amazon.com/Kubernetes-Book-Nigel-Poulton/dp/1521823634)
- [CKA Tips and Tricks](https://youtu.be/TJSAcwUP0pE)

### Practice
- [Play with Kubernetes](https://labs.play-with-k8s.com/)
- [killer.sh Practice questions and environment](https://killer.sh/cka)
- [Practice questions YouTube series](https://youtu.be/uSbqo4X9Zoo)
- [CKA Example Questions](https://levelup.gitconnected.com/kubernetes-cka-example-questions-practical-challenge-86318d85b4d)
- [GitHub gist of practice questions](https://gist.github.com/texasdave2/8f4ce19a467180b6e3a02d7be0c765e7)
- [CKAD-Practice-Questions](https://github.com/bbachi/CKAD-Practice-Questions)
- [More CKAD-Practice-Questions](https://github.com/dgkanatsios/CKAD-exercises)

# Architecture

## Control Plane

- Manages the cluster
- Components
- **kube-api-server**
- Serves Kubernetes API
- Primary interface to control plane and cluster itself
- **etcd**
- Backend data store for Kubernetes cluster
- **kube-scheduler**
- Selects an available node in the cluster on which to run containers
- **kube-controller-manager**
- Runs collection of multiple controller utilities in a single process
- **cloud-controller-manager**
- Interface between Kubernetes and various cloud platforms
- Only used when using with cloud-based resources (i.e. GCP, AWS, Azure)

## Nodes

- Machines where the containers managed by the cluster are run
- Components
- **kubelet**
- Kubernetes agent that runs on a node
- Communicates with control plane
- Handles reporting /container status and other data to control plane
- **Container runtime**
- Not build into Kubernetes. Separate software.
- Responsible for running containers on machine
- Kubernetes supports multiple, i.e. Docker, containerd, etc.
- **kube-proxy**
- Network proxy that runs on each node
- Provides network between containers and cluster

## Kubernetes CLI tools

- `kubeadm`
- Tool that will simply the process of setting up our Kubernetes cluster
- Can be used to set up multi-node Kubernetes cluster

- `kubectl`
- Controls the Kubernetes cluster
- Communicates with the control plane

# Installation

The following is a way of installing and setting up Kubernetes. However, you can see other
methods here. The different method depend on how and where Kubernetes is set up.
- https://itnext.io/kubernetes-installation-methods-the-complete-guide-1036c860a2b3

## `containerd` Installation (if needed)

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/setup/production-environment/container-runtimes/#containerd

`containerd` is a container runtime (as is Docker), that is needed on each kubernetes node to deal with containers.
Perform these steps on both control and worker nodes. The following is on a Debian-based system.

- Load needed kernel modules (ensures when system starts up, modules will be enables)
- ```bash
cat << EOF | sudo tee /etc/modules-load.d/containerd.conf
overlay
br-netfilter
EOF
```
- Enable the kernel modules right now
- `sudo modprobe overlay`
- `sudo modprobe br-netfilter`
- System level networking settings
- ```bash
cat <`

## `minikube` Cluster

Docs: https://minikube.sigs.k8s.io/docs/

`minikube` is local Kubernetes, focusing on making it easy to learn and develop for Kubernetes.
`minikube` allows you set up a local kubernetes cluster with one or many nodes. Each node is
a Docker container.

- Installation
- https://minikube.sigs.k8s.io/docs/start/
- ```bash
curl -LO https://storage.googleapis.com/minikube/releases/latest/minikube-linux-amd64
sudo install minikube-linux-amd64 /usr/local/bin/minikube
```

- Useful `minikube` commands
- Start the cluster: `minikube start`
- Stop the cluster: `minikube stop`
- Delete the cluster: `minikube delete`
- Add a control plane node: `minikube node add --control-plane`
- Add a worker node: `minikube node add --worker`
- Delete a node: `minikube node delete`
- Show the dashboard: `minikube dashboard`

# Namespaces (ns)

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/overview/working-with-objects/namespaces/

- Mechanism for isolating groups of resources (i.e. pods, containers) within a single cluster
- Names of resources need to be unique within a namespace, but not across namespaces.
- A way to divide cluster resources between multiple users
- Virtual clusters backed by same physical cluster (similar to Virtual private networks)
- All clusters have the `default` namespace
- `kube-system` namespace is for system components
- Some resources like nodes and persistantVolumes are not in any namespace

## Working with Namespaces

- Listing existing namespaces
- `kubectl get namespaces`

- Can specify where the command can run with `--namespace`
- Example: `kubectl get pods --namespace my-namespace`

- Can specify to look at all namespaces with `--all-namespaces` (or `-A`)
- Can be slow to complete
- Example `kubectl get pods --all-namespaces`

- Create a custom namespace
- `kubectl create namespace my-namespace`

- Set a default namespace for all subsequent commands
- `kubectl config set-context --current --namespace=`

# Cluster Management

## High Availability

- Need multiple control plane nodes
- Each control plane node has instance of `kube-api-server`

- Design Patterns
- Load Balancer
- All control plane nodes communicate with a load balancer
- Load balancer communicates with worker nodes with `kubelet`

- Stacked `etcd`
- `etcd` runs on the same nodes as control plane components
- Control planes have its own `etcd` instance
- Clusters that are set up using `kubeadm` use this design pattern

- External `etcd`
- `etcd` runs on complete separate nodes apart from the control plane
- Can have any number of control plane instances, and any number of `etcd` nodes

## Management Tools

Interface and make it easier to setup or use Kubernetes.

- `kubectl`
- Main method for Kubernetes interaction

- `kubeadm`
- Quickly and easily install and setup Kubernetes cluster

- `minikube`
- Allows to automatically set up local single-node Kubernetes cluster
- Great for quick development purposes
- Can add nodes
- Quickly start and stop a cluster

- `kind`
- Run local Kubernetes cluster using Docker
- Can be used for local cluster testing

- `helm`
- Templating and package management for Kubernetes objects
- Manage your own templates (known as charts)
- Can download and share templates

- `Kompose`
- Translate Docker compose files into Kubernetes objects
- Allows porting from Docker compose to Kubernetes

- `Kustomize`
- Configuration management tool for Kubernetes object configurations
- Share and re-use templated configuration for Kubernetes

## Safely Draining a Node

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/tasks/administer-cluster/safely-drain-node/

When performing maintenance, you may sometimes need to remove a Kubernetes node from service/cluster.
This allows all applications on the cluster to run without any interruptions.
Containers will gracefully terminated.

These commands are run on the control plane node.

- Draining a node
- `kubectl drain `
- `--igrnoe-daemonsets` - Ignore DaemeonSets pods tied to node
- `--force` - Ignore error messages such as DaemonSet-managed pods

- After maintenance is complete, allow pods to run on node again
- `kubectl uncordon `

## Upgrading Kubernetes and Tools

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/tasks/administer-cluster/kubeadm/kubeadm-upgrade/

### Control Plane Node

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/tasks/administer-cluster/kubeadm/kubeadm-upgrade/#upgrading-control-plane-nodes

1. Drain node, putting it out of cluster service
- `kubectl drain --ignore-daemonsets`

2. Upgrade `kubeadm` CLI tool
- `sudo apt-get update`
- `sudo apt-get install -y --allow-change-held-packages kubeadm=1.22.2-00`

3. Plan the cluster upgrade
- `sudo kubeadm upgrade plan v1.22.2`
- `sudo kubeadm upgrade plan`
- Shows versions you can upgrade to
- Shows any component configs that require manual upgrade
- Automatically renews certificates that it manages on this node

4. Apply the cluster upgrade
- `sudo kubeadm upgrade apply -y v1.22.2`

5. Upgrade `kubelet` and `kubectl` CLI tools
- `sudo apt-get install -y --allow-change-held-packages kubelet=1.22.2-00 kubectl=1.22.2-00`
- `sudo systemctl daemon-reload`
- `sudo systemctl restart kubelet`

6. Uncordon the node, putting it back into cluster service
- `kubectl uncordon --ignore-daemonsets --force`
- `--force` in case of stand-alone pods
- Same as the control plane node command for draining
- May have to use `--force`

2. Upgrade `kubeadm` CLI tool
- `sudo apt-get update`
- `sudo apt-get install -y --allow-change-held-packages kubeadm=1.22.2-00`

3. Upgrade the `kubelet` configuration
- `sudo kubeadm upgrade node`

4. Upgrade `kubelet` and `kubectl` CLI tools

5. Uncordon the node, putting it back into cluster service
- **This command is run on the control plane node**
- `kubectl uncordon ` - Get a specific value for a key
- `etcdctl --endpoints=$ENDPOINTS endpoint health` - Check all `etcd` endpoint health

- `etcd` typically runs on port `2379`

- `etcd` could either be running as a *system service* or as a *kubernetes pod*

- **Important:** Set environmental variable for `etcd` version
- `export ETCDCTL_API=3`

## Back Up `etcd` Database

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/tasks/administer-cluster/configure-upgrade-etcd/#backing-up-an-etcd-cluster

- For HTTPS communication, must specify certificates
- .crt, .key, .pem/crt

- HTTPS Communication Example:
- ```bash
etcdctl snapshot save /home/me/etcd_backup.db \
--endpoints=https://etcd1:2379 \
--cert=/path/to/file/server.crt \
--key=/path/to/file/server.key \
--cacert=/path/to/file/ca.crt

- For `--endpoints`, can be IP, or DNS name
- Can find the `etcd` endpoint by looking at `etcd` service or running pod
- **If pod:** `kubectl get pod -n kube-system etcd-pod-name -o yaml`
- spec.containers.command -> `--listen-clinet-urls`
- **If service:** `systemctl status etcd`

- For HTTP communication `--cert`, `--key`, and `--cacert` are not needed

- Encryption cert values can be found using in command section of `kubectl -n kube-system describe pod etcd-controlplane`
- `--cacert`: `--trusted-ca-file` -> `/path/to/file/.crt`
- `--cert`: `--cert-file` -> `/path/to/file/.crt`
- `--key`: `--key-file` -> `/path/to/file/.key`
- Verify database snapshot
- ```bash
etcdctl --write-out=table snapshot status /home/me/etcd_backup.db
```

## Restore `etcd` Database

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/tasks/administer-cluster/configure-upgrade-etcd/#restoring-an-etcd-cluster

- Stop `etcd` service
- **If service:** `sudo systemctl stop etcd`
- **If pod:** Stop all cluster activity by moving all static pod manifest files
1. `ssh` into the cluster node
2. Go to manifest directory, typically `/etc/kubernetes/manifests`
3. Create a directory to move files to: `mkdir -p ../backup`
4. Move all directory contents: `mv ./* ../backup`

- Remove existing `etcd` database
- `sudo rm -rf /var/lib/etcd`

- Creates a new logical cluster
- ```bash
etcdctl snapshot restore
```
- Example:
- `etcdctl --endpoints https://etcd1:2379 snapshot restore snapshotdb`

- Set ownership
- `sudo chown -R etcd:etcd /var/lib/etcd`

- Start etcd
- `sudo systemctl start etcd`
- If manifests file wree moved initially, move them back: `mv /etc/kubernetes/backup/* /etc/kubernetes/manifests/`

# Object Management

Object management is done with `kubectl` CLI tool used to deploy applications, inspect
and manage cluster resources, and view logs.

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/reference/kubectl/

- Usage: `kubectl [COMMAND] [OBJECT TYPE] [OBJECT NAME] [FLAGS]`

- **`kubectl api-resources`**
- List all available Kubernetes resource objects for current Kubernetes version.

- **`kubectl get ....`**
- Get a list of available specified objects
- Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/reference/generated/kubectl/kubectl-commands#get
- Some options:
- `-o, --output` - Specify output format (i.e. `json`, `yaml`, `wide`, etc)
- `--sort-by` - Sort output using a JSONPath expression (i.e. `{.metadata.name}`)
- Useful to first output result in `json` to see what the JSONPath is
- `-l, --selector` - Filter results by label (i.e. `key1=value1,key2=value2`)
- Examples:
- `kubectl get pods`
- `kubectl get pv -o wide`
- `kubectl get pods my-pod -o yaml > my-pod.yml`

- **`kubectl describe ....`**
- Show detailed and human readable information of a specific resource
- Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/reference/generated/kubectl/kubectl-commands#describe
- Examples:
- `kubectl describe pods/nginx`
- `kubectl describe -f pod.json` - Pod defined by `pod.json`

- **`kubectl create ....`**
- Create a Kubernetes resource from file or stdin
- Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/reference/generated/kubectl/kubectl-commands#create
- If object exists, error occurs
- Can use `--dry-run=clinet`
- Examples:
- `kubectl create -f pod.yaml`
- `cat pod.json | kubectl create --filename -`
- `kubectl create deployment my-dep --image alpine --dry-run=client -o yaml`

- **`kubectl apply ....`**
- Will create a new object or modify an existing one
- Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/reference/generated/kubectl/kubectl-commands#apply
- Will not throw error if object exists
- Examples:
- `kubectl apply -f pod.yaml`
- `kubectl apply -k my-dir/` - Will look into `my-dir` directory for all resource configs

- **`kubectl delete ....`**
- Delete resources from cluster
- Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/reference/generated/kubectl/kubectl-commands#delete
- Can specify objects to delete form:
- Name
- stdin
- resources and names (i.e. `pod myPod1 myPod2`)
- resources and label selector (i.e. `-l name=myLabel`)
- Some options:
- `--all` - Delete all specified resources in current namespace
- `--now` - Immediate shutdown, minimal delay
- `--force` - Bypass graceful deletion
- Examples:
- `kubectl delete -f ./pod.yaml`
- `kubectl delete pod some-pod --now`

- **`kubectl exec ....`**
- Execute a command in a container
- Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/reference/generated/kubectl/kubectl-commands#exec
- Great for troubleshooting
- Raw terminal interactive mode inside container:
- `kubectl exec -c -i -t -- bash`
- Examples:
- `kubectl exec some-pod -- echo "yo"` - Using first container in pod
- `kubectl exec some-pod -c python-container -- printenv`
- `kubectl exec deploy/myDeployment -- date` - Using first pod, first container, in deployment
- `kubectl exec svc/myService -- ls /dir` - Using first pod, first container, in service

## Declarative vs. Imperative Methods

- Declarative
- Define objects using data structures such as YAML or JSON (predefined)
- Example:
- `kubectl apply -f deployment.yml`

- Imperative
- Define objects using `kubectl` commands and flags.
- Some people find imperative commands faster.
- Can be faster in the exam sometimes!
- Example:
- `kubectl create deployment myi-deploytment image=nginx`

# Role-Based Access Control (RBAC) Authorization

Role-based access control (RBAC) is a method of regulating access to resources based on
the roles of individual users within the organization. Essentially, what users are allowed
to do and access within the cluster.

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/reference/access-authn-authz/rbac/

## Role Objects

### Role

- Sets permissions within a particular namespace
- Can specify `namespace`
- Example: Role definition YAML file
- ```yaml
apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
kind: Role
metadata:
namespace: default # <-- Note namespace defined
name: pod-reader
rules:
- apiGroups: [""] # <-- "" indicates the core API group
resources: ["pods", "pods/logs"]
verbs: ["get", "watch", "list"]
```

### ClusterRole

- Not namespace specific, cluster-wide
- Do not need to specify `namespace`

### RoleBinding

- Grants permission defined in a role to a user or set of users
- Holds a list of subjects (users, groups, or service accounts)
- Holds reference to the role being granted
- Can only reference an Role in the same namespace
- Can also reference a ClusterRole
- Example:
- ```yaml
apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
kind: RoleBinding
metadata:
name: read-pods
namespace: default # <-- Must be in the same namespace as Role
subjects: # <-- You can specify more than one "subject"
- kind: User
name: jane # <-- "name" is case sensitive
apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io
roleRef: # <-- "roleRef" specifies the binding to Role/ClusterRole
kind: Role # <-- This must be Role/ClusterRole
name: pod-reader # <-- This must match the name of Role/ClusterRole
apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io
```

### ClusterRoleBinding

- To bind a ClusterRole to **all namespaces**, use `ClusterRoleBinding`

## User Permissions

### Working With Permissions

- Get all roles defined in a specific namespace
- `kubectl get role --namespace `

- Apply a role or role binding definition
- `kubectl apply -f `

- Check if user has certain access
- `kubectl get pods --namespace --kubeconfig `

- Check permissions as current user

- Example: Check to see if I can do everything in my current namespace ("*" means all)
- `kubectl auth can-i '*' '*'`

- Example: Check to see if I can create pods in any namespace
- `kubectl auth can-i create pods --all-namespaces`

- Example: Check to see if I can list deployments in my current namespace
- `kubectl auth can-i list deployments.extensions`

- Check permissions as someone else

- Example: Check if `john.blah` can create deployments
- `kubectl auth can-i create deployments --namespace default --as john.blah`

## Service Accounts (sa)

Service account provides an identity for processes that run in a Pod.
Users are authenticated to Kubernetes API with User Accounts, but processes in containers inside Pods
are authenticated a Service Accounts.

- Service accounts exist within namespaces
- Can use RBAC objects to control service accounts
- Can bind service accounts with ClusterRoles or ClusterRoleBindings to provide access

- Get/list service accounts
- `kubectl get sa`

- Creating service accounts
- `kubectl create -f `
- `kubectl create sa -n `
- Example: Service account definition
- ```yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: ServiceAccount
metadata:
name: build-robot
automountServiceAccountToken: false
```

- Service account tokens and certificats are stored within a pod in this directory:
- `/var/run/kubernetes.io/serviceaccount`

## Inspecting Resource Usage

Kubernetes Metrics Server
- Need add-on to collect and provide metrics data about resources, pods, and containers
- Need Metrics API for this
- Install: `kubectl apply -f https://github.com/kubernetes-sigs/metrics-server/releases/latest/download/components.yaml`
- Once a metrics add-on is installed, can use `kubectl top` to view data about resource usage
in pods and nodes.
- `kubectl top pod --sort-by --selector `
- Example:
- `kubectl top pod --sort-by cpu`

- Can view resource usage by node
- `kubectl top node`

- Checking to see if metrics server is running and responsive
- `kubectl get --raw /apis/metrics.k8s.io/`

## User API Authentication with Certificate

This is needed if the cluster uses HTTPS communication. These steps must come before creating
a role or rolebinding for the user.

Docs (General): https://kubernetes.io/docs/reference/access-authn-authz/certificate-signing-requests/
Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/reference/access-authn-authz/certificate-signing-requests/#normal-user

1. If not provided, create a PKI private key and Certificate Signing Request (CSR)
- `openssl genrsa -out my-user.key 2048`
- `openssl req -new -key my-user.key -out my-user.csr`

2. Encrypt and copy the contents of `.csr` file
- `cat my-user.csr | base64 | tr -d "\n"`

3. Create a CertificateSigningRequest kubernetes resource
- ```yaml
apiVersion: certificates.k8s.io/v1
kind: CertificateSigningRequest
metadata:
name: my-user # <-- User this aplies to
spec:
request:
signerName: kubernetes.io/kube-apiserver-client
expirationSeconds: 86400 # <-- 24 hours in seconds
usages:
- client auth # < -- Must abe this value
```

4. Create the CertificateSigningRequest resource
- `kubectl create -f my-user-csr.yaml`

5. Approve the user certifiacte request for the cluster
- `kubectl get csr` --> Request should be pending for this user
- `kubectl certificate approve my-user`

6. Check if user can make an API request
- `kubectl get pod --as my-user`
- `kubectl auth can-i get list --as my-user`

# Pods and Containers

## Application Configuration

Passing dynamic values to running applications/containers at runtime

### ConfigMaps (cm)

- Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/configuration/configmap/
- Store *non-confidential* data in key-value pair format
- Not designed for large data (1MB max)
- Pods and ConfigMaps must be in the **same namespace**
- Multiple pods can reference the same ConfigMap
- Updates to ConfigMaps reflect in pod that consume it
- Note: ConfigMaps consumed as env. vars are not updated automatically (require pod restart)
- ConfigMaps can be immutable, once created cannot be changed
- Example ConfigMap definition:
- ```yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: ConfigMap
metadata:
name: app-config
namespace: default
data:
key1: value1 # <-- Each key can have value
key2: value2
key3: # <-- Can have tree structure
subkey:
more_keys: data
even_more: more data
key4: |
You can have
multi-line
data.
key5.blah: | # <-- File-like keys
yo.cool=something
yo.moo=something
immutable: false
```
- Pods can consume ConfigMaps with the following:
1. **Container Environmental variables**
- Example:
- ```yaml
kind: Pod
...
spec:
containers:
- ...
env:
- name: MY_ENV_VAR # <-- Visible env. var in container
valueFrom:
configMapKeyRef:
name: app-config # <-- Name of ConfigMap object
key: key1 # <-- The value to read
...
```
2. **Container command-line arguments**
3. **Configuration files in a read-only volume**
- Top level key will be the filename
- Sub level keys will be placed inside the file
- Example:
- ```yaml
kind: Pod
...
spec:
volumes:
- name: config-vol
configMap:
name: app-config
...
```

### Secrets

- Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/configuration/secret/
- Object that has small amount of *sensitive data* (password, token, key, etc)
- Protected from creating, viewing, or editing pods
- Not designed for large data (1MB max)
- NOTE: By default, secrets are stored un-encrypted in data store (etcd)
- When creating a secret using YAML file, the secret itself **must base64 encoded**
- When secret is read by pod, it will be decoded
- Example: `echo -n "some secret text" | base64`
- When reading a secret, it has to be decoded back
- Example: `echo "" | base64 -d`
- Pods can use secrets (same as ConfigMaps)
1. **As files in a volume mounted to the container**
2. **Container environmental variable**
3. **Image pull authentication to authenticate to image registry**
- Data can also be stored as clear text using `stringData` instead of `data`
- No `base64` encoding required
- Example Secret definition:
- ```yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Secret
metadata:
name: my-secret
type: Opaque # <-- Arbitary user-defined data
data:
username: 97sdf9== # <-- base64 encoded text
password: sd89sdfh/sd9f== # <-- base64 encoded text
immutable: false # <-- Default value is false
```
- Can load a secret from a file with imperative command
- `kubectl create secret generic my-secret --from-file `

## Managing Container Resources

- **Resource Requests**
- Define the amount of resources (CPU or memory) a container expected to have
- Kubernetes scheduler will use this request to place pods in proper nodes
with available resources
- Containers are allowed to use more or less than the resource request
- If request is much larger than any node can provide, pod can stay stuck in "Pending" status
- NOTE: Memory is specified in Bytes, CPU is specified in CPU or millicpu units
- 1 physical/virtual CPU core = 1 CPU
- 0.5 CPU = 500m
- Example:
- ```yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
name: my-pod
spec:
containers:
- name: busybox
image: busybox
resources: # <-- Definition
requests:
cpu: "250m" # <-- 0.25 CPU cores
memory: "128Mi" # <-- 128Mi memory
```

- **Resource Limits**
- Hard/Enforced resource limit for container
- Container runtime will enforce this limit
- Some container runtime terminate container processes attempting to use more than allowed resources
- For example, Docker will throttle CPU to a value, while kill processes exceeding memory limit
- Example:
- ```yaml
...
resources:
limits:
cpu: "250m"
memory: "128Mi"
```

## Monitoring Container Health with Probes

Kubernetes can automatically detect unhealthy containers by actively monitoring container health.
`kubelet` uses different probes to gauge the health and readiness of the containers.

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/tasks/configure-pod-container/configure-liveness-readiness-startup-probes/

### Liveness Probe

- Allow to automatically determine whether or not a container application is healthy
- Monitor container on an ongoing bases over the lifetime of the container
- By default, will consider container down if the container process stops
- This mechanism can be customized
- Different type of liveness probes available:
- `exec` - Run a command, if no error, success
- `httpGet` - If status code is over 200 and below 400, success
- `tcpSocket` - TCP check if port is open, if it is, success
- Example: `my-pod.yaml`
- ```yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
...
spec:
containers:
- name: my-container
...
livenessProbe:
exec: # <-- exec type check
command: # <-- If command succeeds = healthy!
- cat # <-- Command
- /tmp/healthy # <-- Arguments to command
initialDelaySeconds: 5 # <-- Wait 5 seconds after container startup
periodSeconds: 5 # <-- Run every 5 seconds
```

### Startup Probe

- Only run on container startup
- Stops once container is up and running.
- Can be useful on containers that have long startup times
- Example:
- ```yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
...
startupProbe:
initialDelaySeconds: 1
periodSeconds: 2
timeoutSeconds: 1
successThreshold: 1
failureThreshold: 30 # <-- Number of times allowed to fail
httpGet: # <-- Check HTTP endpoint
scheme: HTTP
path: /
httpHeaders:
- name: Host
value: myapplication1.com
port: 80
```

### Readiness Probe

- Used to determine when container is ready to accept requests/traffic
- Traffic to a particular pod will not be send until all readiness checks have passed
- Readiness probe same as liveness and startup probe except: `readinessProbe:` block

## Self-Healing Pods with Restart Policies

Kubernetes allows you to customize when and how containers to be automatically restarted.
Three different values for restart policies: `Always`, `OnFailure`, and `Never`.

Can view pod restart status with `kubectl get pod `

1. `Always` *(default)*
- Containers always restarted if stopped
- Even stopped when completed successfully
- This is applications that always need to be running
- Example:
- ```yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
...
spec:
restartPolicy: Always # <-- Note
container:
...
```

2. `OnFailure`
- Container is unhealthy or exists with error code
- Applications that need to run successfully and then stop

3. `Never`
- No matter what, do not restart container
- For containers that need to only run one time
- If container fails, pod status is `Error`

## Multi-Container Pods

More than one container running inside a single pod. Containers share pod resources such as
network and storage. Containers can interact with each other.

- Keep containers in separate Pods unless they need to share resources
- Secondary container is sometimes called `sidecar`
- Shared resources
- **Networking**
- Same network namespace and can communicate on any port
- Even if port is not exposed to the cluster
- **Storage**
- Using container volumes to share data in the pod
- Example: Two containers sharing one volume
- ```yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
name: sidecar-pod
spec:
containers:
- name: busybox1
image: busybox
command: ['sh', '-c', 'while true; do echo logs data > /output/output.log; sleep 5; done']
volumeMounts:
- name: sharedvol # <-- Same shared volume
mountPath: /output# # <-- Mounted here in container
- name: sidecar
image: busybox
command: ['sh', '-c', 'tail -f /input/output.log']
volumeMounts:
- name: sharedvol # <-- Same shared volume
mountPath: /input # <-- Mounted here in container
volumes:
- name: sharedvol # <-- The volume that is shared
emptyDir: {} # <-- Temp volume exsits only for life of Pod
```

## Init Containers

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/workloads/pods/init-containers/

- Containers that run during startup process
- Listed in `InitContainer` spec section
- Run before any other containers in `containers` section
- Must run to once and to completion
- Run in the order they are listed
- When starting a pod, status will read `Init` if currently running init container
- Why?
- Can be used to setup the pod, install tooling/utility
- Can have container tasks and setup scripts not needed in the main containers
- Possible use cases
- Wait for another Kubernetes resource to be created before startup
- Perform sensitive startup steps securely outside of app containers
- Populate data into a shared volume at startup. Main app container can read it.
- Communicate with another service at startup
- Example: Init container with simple startup delay
- ```yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
name: init-pod
spec:
containers:
- name: nginx
image: nginx:1.19.1
initContainers:
- name: delay
image: busybox
command: ['sleep', '30']
```

- Example: Wait for a service
- ```yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
...
spec:
...
initContainers:
- name: my-init-container
image: busybox:1.28
command: ['sh', '-c', "until nslookup my-service; do echo waiting for my-service; sleep 2; done"]
```

# Scheduling in Kubernetes

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/scheduling-eviction/kube-scheduler/

In Kubernetes, scheduling refers to making sure that Pods are matched to Nodes so that Kubelet can run them.

- **Scheduler**
- Control plane component that handles scheduling
- Watches newly created Pods and finds best Node for it
- Taken into account by scheduler:
- Resource requests and available node resources
- Various configurations that affect scheduling using node labels
- ie. `nodeSelector`

## Pod Scheduling Configurations

### `nodeSelector`

- Limits which nodes the pod can be scheduled on
- Use labels to filter suitable nodes
- Can assign labels to nodes
- `kubectl label nodes =`
- Example: `kubectl label nodes mylabel=someValue`
- Example:
- ```yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
...
spec:
...
nodeSelector:
mylabel: someValue # <-- Only nodes with this label
```

### `nodeName`

- Bypass scheduling logic and assign pod to a specific Node by node name
- Example:
- ```yaml
...
spec:
...
nodeName: worker0
```
- Getting node names
- `kubectl get nodes`

### Taints and Tolerations

Taints applied to a node allow a node to repel a set of pods. Tolerations applied
to pods allow pods to be scheduled onto nodes with matching taints. (Think pods tollerate a taint)

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/scheduling-eviction/taint-and-toleration/

- Usages
- Dedicated nodes exclusive for a set of users or services
- Nodes with special hardware (ie. GPUs)

- **Taint** on Nodes
- Taints have a key, value, and effect
- Key and value are like regular labels applied to resources
- Effect can be one of the following:
- `NoSchedule` - Pod scheduling is not allowed on node
- `PreferNoSchedule` - Cluster will **try** to avoid placing a pod on this node
- `NoExecute` - If pod is already running on node, keep it there
- Tainting one single node:
- `kubectl train nodes my-node-1 my-key=my-value:NoSchedule`
- View taints on all nodes:
- `kubectl get nodes --output custom-columns=NODE_NAME:.metadata.name,TAINTS:.spec.taints`
- View taint of single node
- `kubectl describe node my-node-1 | grep -i taint`

- **Tolleration** on Pods
- A pod can overcome a node taint by tollerating the node taint
- ```yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
...
spec:
containers:
...
tolerations:
- key: "my-key" # <-- Matching taint key
operator: "Equal" # <-- Operator can be "Equal" or "Exists"
value: "my-value" # <-- If operator is "Equal", value is needed
effect: "NoSchedule" # <-- Node taint effect to tollerate
```

### Affinity

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/scheduling-eviction/assign-pod-node/#affinity-and-anti-affinity

**TODO**

## DaemonSets (ds)

DaemonSets will automatically runs a copy of a Pod on each node in the cluster

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/workloads/controllers/daemonset/

- Will run copy of the Pod on new nodes as they are added to the cluster
- Manages specified pods
- Will respect scheduling rules (ie. labels, taints, tolerations)
- Belong to `apiVersion: apps/v1`
- Actual pod description is defined in `template`
- Example: Single pod, single container in each node
- ```yaml
apiVersion: apps/v1 # <-- NOTE
kind: DaemonSet
metadata:
name: my-daemonset
spec:
selector:
matchLabels:
app: my-daemonset # <-- Any Pods that have this label
template: # <-- The Pod template to create pods
metadata:
labels:
app: my-daemonset # <-- Typically matches the above selector
spec:
containers:
- name: nginx
image: nginx:1.19.1
```
- Get list of DaemonSets
- `kubectl get daemonset`
- Will show how many desired/current/ready pods are running

## Static Pods

Static Pods are managed directly by kubelet daemon on a specific node, without the API server
observing them.

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/tasks/configure-pod-container/static-pod/

- Not managed by control plane, only kubelet watches each Static Pod.
- Can run even if there is no Kubernetes API server present
- Pod definition (YAML or JSON) is placed in a specific place on the node where kubelet will pick it up
- This location is configurable
- Default: `/etc/kubernetes/manifests/`
- If not default, can find location with the `kubelet` configuration:
- `ps -aux | grep kubelet`
- Config file location will be in `--config` value (ie. `--config=/var/lib/kubelet/config.yaml`)
- `cat | grep -i static`
- May need root permission to add files here
- Kubelet will automatically create "mirror Pod" which acts to make the Pod visible to
Kubernetes API server (But can't manage via API server)
- Can see if with `kubectl get pods`

# Deployments

Defines a desired state (declaritive) for a ReplicaSet (set of replica Pods)

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/workloads/controllers/deployment/

- Deployment controller seeks to maintain the desired state by creating, deleting, and replacing
Pods with new configurations.
- Use cases
- Scale application up or down by changing replica Pod number
- Perform rolling updates to deploy new software version (ie. image versions)
- Roll back to previous software version
- Includes the following configurations
- `replicas` - Number of replica Pods that the Deployment will seek to maintin
- `selector` - Label selector used to identify the replica Pods managed by the Deployment
- `template` - Pod definition used to create all replica Pods for the Deployment
- Example:
- ```yaml
apiVersion: apps/v1 # <-- Note
kind: Deployment
metadata:
name: nginx-deployment
labels:
app: nginx
spec:
replicas: 3 # <-- 3 Pods in this deployment
selector:
matchLabels:
app: nginx # <-- Get any pods with this metadata label
template: # <-- Definition of the Pod for this deployment
metadata: # <-- Note no "name:". Deployment will give name.
labels:
app: nginx # <-- Match label in selector above
spec:
containers:
- name: nginx
image: nginx:1.14.2
ports:
- containerPort: 80
```
- Can change the image of a Deployment without YAML
- `kubectl set image deployments/ `
- Example:
- `kubectl set image deployments/my-deployment nginx:1.16.1`

## Scaling Applications with Deployments

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/workloads/controllers/deployment/#scaling-a-deployment

- Dedicating more or fewer resources to an application in order to meet changing needs.
- Useful in horizontal scaling
- Few ways of doing this
- Change `replicas` value in YAML deployment description then `kubectl apply`
- Use command `kubectl scale`
- Example: `kubectl scale deployment/my-deployment --replicas=5`
- Use command `kubectl autoscale` to scale depending on other factors
- Example: Scaling based on CPU utilization
- `kubectl autoscale deployment/my-deployment --min=10 --max=15 --cpu-percent=80`
- Can actively change a deployment
- `kubectl edit deployment `
- Change the deployment `replicas` in the `spec` section!

## Rolling Updates with Deployments

- **Rolling Updates**
- Allows changes to Deployment at a controlled rate.
- Gradually replacing old Pods with new Pods
- Allows you to update your Pods without incurring downtime
- This is by default triggered any time Deployment is updated

- **Rolback**
- If update to deployment causes issues, you can roll back the deployment to previous
working condition.

- Deployment rollout management commands
- `kubectl rollout status deployment/` - Checking deployment rolling update status
- `kubectl rollout history deployment/` - Checking deployment rollout history
- `kubectl rollout undo deployment/` - Undo previous deployment rollout
- `kubectl rollout pause deployment/` - Pause deployment rollout
- `kubectl rollout resume deployment/` - Resume paused deployment rollout

# Networking

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/services-networking/

## Network Model

Docs: https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/cloud-private/3.1.2?topic=networking-kubernetes-network-model

- Set of standards that define how networking between Pods behaves
- Variety of this model implementation
- Calico network plugin
- Flannel network plugin
- Define how pods communicate with each other
- Each pod has its own unique IP address within the cluster, even in a different node!
- A pod can reach any other pod using pod's IP
- Pod IPs drawn from IP pool created at installation time
- Kubernetes services can expose application on Pod to be reachable outside of the cluster

## Container Network Interface (CNI) Plugins

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/extend-kubernetes/compute-storage-net/network-plugins/

- Type of Kubernetes network plugins
- Provide network connectivity between Pods
- Adhere to the standard set by the Kubernetes network model
- Plugins will depend on specific situation
- Each plugin installation process may differ
- Nodes will remain in `NotReady` state until a network plugin is installed
- Example network plugin installation (Calico)
- `kubectl apply -f `
- `kubectl apply -f https://docs.projectcalico.org/manifests/calico-typha.yaml`

>> By default kubelet looks into `/etc/cni/net.d` to discover the CNI plugin

## Domain Name System (DNS) in Kubernetes

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/services-networking/dns-pod-service/

- Allows Pods to locate other Pods and Services using domain names (ie. `some-name` instead of IP address (ie. `192.168.1.3`)
- DNS runs as a service within the cluster
- Typically in `kube-system` namespace
- kubeadm clusters
- Use CoreDNS as DNS solution
- Typically can see them
- Pods: `kubectl get pods -n kube-system`
- Service: `kuabectl get service -n kube-system`
- Automatically given domain name of the following form
- `..pod.cluster.local`
- NOTE: Pod IP address `.` replaced by `-`
- Example: `192-168-10-100.default.pod.cluster.local`
- Another pod can communicate with this pod using this DNS name from any namespace
- More useful with kubernetes services

## NetworkPolicies (netpol)

Kubernetes object that allows you to control the flow of network communication to and from the Pods

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/services-networking/network-policies/

- Allows for a more secure network
- Can isolate the Pod from traffic that is not needed
- **By default, pods are considered non-isolated and completely open to all traffic**
- NetworkPolicy can apply to Ingress (incoming), Egress (outgoing), or both types of network traffic
- Ingress traffic => `from` section
- Egress traffic => `to` section
- Can use different selectors for `from` and `to`
1. `podSelector` - Traffic from and to specific pods
2. `namespaceSelector` - Traffic from and to specific namespaces
3. `ipBlock` - Traffic from a specific IP range using CIDR notation (ie. 10.0.1.0/16)
- `port` - Specify one or more ports that will allow traffic, includes protocol (ie. `TCP`)
- Can attach label to namespace and use `namespaceSelector.matchLabels` to apply the policy to specific namespace
- Example:
- ```yaml
apiVersion: networking.k8s.io/v1 # <-- Note
kind: NetworkPolicy
metadata:
name: test-network-policy
namespace: default
spec:
podSelector: # <-- Which pod to apply this to, same namespace
matchLabels:
role: db
policyTypes: # <-- Should batch the sections below
- Ingress # <-- If "ingress" section omitted, no in-traffic
- Egress # <-- If "egress" section omitted, no out-traffic
ingress:
- from: # <-- "from" for ingress only
- ipBlock:
cidr: 172.17.0.0/16 # <-- Allow this IP range
except:
- 172.17.1.0/24
- namespaceSelector:
matchLabels:
project: myproject # <-- Allow from name space with this label
- podSelector:
matchLabels:
role: frontend # <-- Allow Pods with this label
ports: # <-- Rules applied only to these ports/protocol
- protocol: TCP
port: 6379
egress:
- to: # <-- "to" for egress only
- ipBlock:
cidr: 10.0.0.0/24
ports:
- protocol: TCP
port: 5978
```

## Troubleshooting Network

- Network is not set up
- **ISSEUS**:
- Cluster Notes status is `NotReady` network is not set up
- Pod `IP` is ``and/or `STATUS` is `Pending`, network is not set up
- `kubectl describe node ` shows event of `Starting kube-proxy`
- `kubectl get pods -n kube-system` shows no network plugin pod (ie. `calico*`)
- **SOLUTIONS**
- `kubectl apply -f `

- Misconfigured NetworkPolicies
- **ISSUES**
- Within the same namespace, pods cannot communicate with each other
- `curl ` from one pod cannot reach another pod
- **SOLUTIONS**
- Check network policties
- `kubectl get networkpolicy`
- `kubectl describe networkpolicy `
- Adjust all NetworkPolicies
- `kubectl edit networkpolicy -n `
- `kubectl apply -f `

- All open traffic between Pods, namespaces, IP
- **ISSUES**
- Pods ARE able to communicate with a specific Pod, Namespace, IP ranges
- **SOLUTIONS**
- No NetworkPolicies are set up, set them up

# Services

Services expose applications running as a set of Pods.

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/services-networking/service/

- Clients are not aware of Pods (creates abstraction)
- Client traffic to a Kubernetes service is routed to its Pods in a load-balanced fashion
- **Traffic**: *Client -> Service -> Endpoint -> Pods in cluster*
- **Endpoints**
- Backend entities to which services route traffic
- Services that route to multiple Pods, each Pod has an endpoint for that Service
- Look at Service's Endpoints to determine Service-Pod traffic routing
- `kubectl get endpoints `

## Types of Services

How and where the Service will expose the application.

### ClusterIP (default)

- Expose applications *inside* the cluster network
- Clients will be other Pods within the cluster
- **Traffic:** *Pod --> Service --> Endpoint --> Pods*
- Can create a starting template:
- `kubectl create service clusterip svc-internal --tcp=80:80 --dry-run='client' -o yaml > svc-internal.yml`
- Remember, you can set up command completion, and use `--help`
- `--tcp=::`
- Kubernetes allocates a port from a range of (default: 30000-32767) to service
- *Same port on every Node*
- For example, port 30020, on all Nodes running the Service
- Can specify with `nodePort` key
- Can create a starting template:
- `kubectl create service nodeport svc-external --tcp=80:80 --dry-run=client -o yaml > svc-external.yml`
- Remember, you can set up command completion, and use `--help`
- Example: Service exposed outside a cluster
- ```yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Service
metadata:
name: my-service
spec:
type: NodePort # <-- NOTE
selector:
app: MyApp
ports:
# By default and for convenience, the `targetPort` is set to the same value as the `port` field.
- port: 80 # <-- Service listens on this port (outside pod)
targetPort: 80 # <-- Ports on Pods attached to this service (inside pod)
nodePort: 30007 # <-- Exposed port on nodes. Optional, by default chosen 30000-32767 (outside cluster)
```

### LoadBalancer

- Expose applications *outside* of cluster network
- Use external cloud load balancer
- Only works with cloud platforms (ie. AWS) that include load balancing
- **Traffic:**: *Client -> LoadBalancer -> Cluster/Service -> Endpoint -> Pod*

### ExternalName

- No proxying of any kind is set up
- Maps Service to contents of `externalName` field (ie. foo.bar.example.com)
- **Not covered in CKA exam**

## Imperatively Creating a Service

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/reference/generated/kubectl/kubectl-commands#expose

- A service can be created and automatically attached via a single command
- Example: Exposing a pod with ClusterIP
- ```bash
kubectl expose pod my-pod --name my-service --type ClusterIP
```
- Example: Exposing a deploymentw with NodePort
- ```bash
kubectl expose deployment my-deploy --name my-service --type NodePort
```
- You can also create a starter template for a service to work from
- ```bash
kubectl expose pod my-pod --name my-service --type NodePort --dry-run=client --output yaml
```

## Service DNS Names

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/services-networking/dns-pod-service/

- Kubernetes assigns DNS names to Services, allowing applications within the cluster to easily
locate them
- DNS query in different namespaces may return different results
- Service Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN) has the following format:
- `..svc.`
- Default `` is `cluster.local`
- Examples:
- `my_service.default.svc.cluster.local`
- `my_service.testing.svc.my_company.com`
- FQDN can be reached form any Namespace in the entire cluster
- **NOTE**: Pods within the **same** Namespace can simply use the service name
- Example: `curl my-service`

## Ingress (ing)

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/services-networking/ingress/

- Ingress (incoming) is a Kubernetes object that manages external access to Services in the cluster
- Typically HTTP of HTTPS routes from the outside of the cluster
- *More functionality than a simple service exposing `NodePort` on each node*
- Can manage SSL termination, advanced load balancing, or name-based virtual hosting
- Can set up more advanced routing to multiple services
- Can consolidate multiple routing rules into one single resource exposing multiple services
under the same IP address
- **Traffic:** *Client -> Ingress -> Service -> Endpoint -> Pods*
- Can create starting template:
- `kubectl create ingress --path:: [OPTIONS]`
- Define a set of **routing rules**
- Routing rule properties determine to which requests it applies to
- Each routing rule has set of **paths** that corresponds to a backend service
- Requests that matches the path will be routed to the backend
- Example:
- ```yaml
apiVersion: networking.k8s.io/v1
kind: Ingress
metadata:
name: my-ingress
spec:
rules:
- http:
paths:
- path: /somepath # <-- When this path is requested
pathType: Prefix # <-- Type of URL matching
backend:
service:
name: my-service # <-- Route to this service, can be ClusterIP-based
port:
number: 80 # <-- To this service port
```
- Request: `http://some-endpoint.com/somepath`
- Will be routed to Service `my-service` at port `80`
- If service uses **named ports**, Ingress can use the port name for `port`
- Example:
- ```yaml
...
backend:
service:
name: my-service
port:
name: http-port # <-- In Pod: spec.ports.name
```
- Check Ingress: `kubectl describe ingress `
- `pathType`
- Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/services-networking/ingress/#path-types
- `Exact` - Matches URL path exactly and is case sensitive
- `Prefix` - Mataches based on URL path prefix split by `/`. (ie. `/yo` matches `/yo/blah`)

### Ingress Controllers

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/services-networking/ingress-controllers/

- Ingress objects can't do anything themselves
- Must have one or more *Ingress Controllers*
- Used with *Ingress Class*
- https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/services-networking/ingress/#ingress-class
- Variety of Ingress Controllers, with different implementation methods for external access to Service
- Commonly and easily installed with Helm Charts
- Can add annotations to Ingress object referencing Ingress Controller functionality
- Most have UI with them available
- Some available Ingress Controllers:
1. NGINX Ingress Controller (https://kubernetes.github.io/ingress-nginx/)
- Does not require third-party modules to run
- Simplest to set up and use
- Best for beginners
- Does not support dynamic design, reload needed after endpoint change
2. Traefik (https://traefik.io/)
- Support for TCP, HTTP, HTTPS, and GRPC
- Supports round-robin and weighted round-robin for load balancing
- Supports *Let's Encrypt*
- Setup requires setting up ServiceAccount, ClusterRole, Deployment for Traefik
3. Istio (https://istio.io/)

# Storage

- Container file system is ephemeral/temporary and is deleted when container is removed or
recreated
- To hold on to data persistantly, we need a non-ephemeral solution

## Volumes

Allow storage of data outside of the container file system while allowing the container to
access the data at runtime.

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/storage/volumes/

- Volume belongs to the Pod and there for the life of the Pod
- Available even if container is removed, data is still there
- Simple container external storage
- Can be set up with Pod/container specification
- Mounting the same volume into multiple containers allows for sharing of data between containers
on the same Pod
- Could have a "sidecar" container with special tools to process data from main container
- **Example**: Pod directory mounted into the container
- ```yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
name: pod-with-volume
spec:
containers:
- name: busybox
image: busybox
volumeMounts: # <-- List of mounts within container
- name: my-volume # <-- Reference volume in volume section
mountPath: /output # <-- Directory within the container
- name: busybox2 # <-- Can have more than one container
image: busybox
volumeMounts:
- name: my-volume # <-- Same volume to share data between containers
mountPath: /input
volumes:
- name: my-volume
hostPath: # <-- Reference dir/file on host Node filesystem
path: /var/data # <-- Directory on Pod
- name: my-empty-dir
emptyDir: {} # <-- Temp. empty directory on Node only for life of Pod
```

## Volume Types

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/storage/volumes/#volume-types

Volumes and Persistent Volumes have a **volume type**, which determines how the storage is
actually handled (mechanism for storage).

Various volumes types support storage methods such as:

- Network File System (NFS)
- Cloud storage (AWS, Azure, GCP, etc)
- Kubernetes ConfigMaps and Secrets
- Simple directory on the cluster Nodes

### Common Volume Types

- `hostPath`
- Stores data in a specified file or directory on the host Node
- `type` can be:
- `Directory`
- `File`
- `Socket`
- more
- `path` is the directory on the Node
- **Example**: Volume defined in Pod
- ```yaml
...
volumes:
- name: config-vol
hostPath:
path: /data # <-- Name where volume is mounted
type: Directory
```

- `emptyDir: {}`
- Directory that exists only as long as the Pod exists on the Node
- Directory and its data are deleted when Pod is removed
- Useful for simply sharing data between containers in same Pod

- `configMap`
- Inject configuration data into pods
- Provide ConfigMaps name in the volume section
- **Example**:
- ```yaml
...
volumes:
- name: config-vol
configMap:
name: log-config # <-- Name of the ConfigMap
items:
- key: log_level
path: log_level
```

## Persistent Volumes

- Allows treating storage as an abstract resource.
- References Order:
- **Pod -> PersistentVolumeClaim -> *PersistentVolume -> StorageClass -> External Storage**
- Define/Create in reverse!
- `*` - Note, if StorageClass is defined, PersistentVolume can be dynamically allocated and does
not have to be defined.

### StorageClass (sc)

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/storage/storage-classes/

- Allows admins to specify types of storage services offered on their platform
- **When specifying a StorageClass, a PersistentVolume does not need to be specified,
PersistentVolumes are automatically created by the StorageClass**
- PersistentVolumeClaims can reference a StorageClass and dynamically create a PersistantVolume
- Different `parameters` may be accepted depending on the `provisioner`
- Example: For provisioner `kubernetes.io/aws-ebs` we can have the following
- ```yaml
provisioner: kubernetes.io/aws-ebs
parameters:
type: io1
iopsPerGB: "10"
fsType: ext4
```
- Use case could include creating a low-performance and high-performance storage type
- Kubernetes users can then choose StorageClass that fit need of application
- `allowVolumeExpansion` determines whether or not the StorageClass supports the ability to resize
volumes after they are created
- If set to `false` and try to resize, will get an error
- By default, set to `false`
- If not StorageClass is created, one will be automatically be created
- **Example:** Storage Class for local storage
- ```yaml
apiVersion: storage.k8s.io/v1 # <-- Note
kind: StorageClass
metadata:
name: localdisk
provisioner: kubernetes.io/no-provisioner # <-- Type of service/platorm/provider
allowVolumeExpansion: true # <-- Volume can be resized after creation
```

### PersistantVolume (pv)

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/storage/persistent-volumes/

- Treats storage as abstract resource for Pods
- Describes the underlying storage resource (local, cloud, etc)
- Tell Kubernetes what you need and it will allocate as you need it
- Storage in the cluster that has been provisioned by an admin or dynamically provisioned
using Storage Classes
- `storageClassName` references a `StorageClass` object
- `persistentVolumeReclaimPolicy` determines how the storage resources can be reused when the
PersistentVolume's associated PersistentVolumeClaims are deleted
- `Retain` - Keep all data. Manual clean up and prepare for reuse
- `Recycle` - Delete all data. Basic scrub (`rm -rf /my-volume/*`)
- `Delete` - Associated storage asset is deleted (only for cloud resources)
- Check status of PersistentVolume
- `kubectl get pv`
- Statuses
- `Available` - Not bound to PersistentVolumeClaim
- `Bound` - Bound to a PersistentVolumeClaim
- `Released` - Claim has been deleted, resources not yet reclaimed by cluster
- `Failed` - Voulme failed automatic reclamation
- **Example:**
- ```yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: PersistentVolume
metadata:
name: my-pv
spec:
storageClassName: localdisk # <-- References a StorageClass
persistentVolumeReclaimPolicy: Recycle # <-- Scrub and reuse
capacity:
storage: 1Gi # <-- Total available to be able to claim
accessModes:
- ReadWriteOnce # <-- Must match PersistentVolumeClaim!
hostPath: # <-- Type of storage
path: /var/output
```

### PersistentVolumeClaim (pvc)

- Request for storage by a user.
- PersistentVolumeClaims consume and bind to PersistentVolume resources
- **NOTE: PersistentVolumeClaim must be in the same namespace as the Pod using it**
- References Order:
- **Pod -> PersistentVolumeClaim -> *PersistentVolume -> StorageClass -> External Storage**
- Define/Create in reverse!
- Claims can request specific storage size and access modes
- PersistentVolume and PersistentVolumeClaims are bound
- Will look for PersistentVolume that is able to meet requested criteria
- If found, it will bind to it
- **Example:**
- ```yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: PersistentVolumeClaim
metadata:
name: my-pvc
spec:
storageClassName: localdisk # <-- Reference StorageClass
volumeMode: Filesystem # <-- Default value
accessModes:
- ReadWriteOnce # <-- Must match PersistentVolume!
resources:
requests:
storage: 100Mi # <-- Storage claimed from PersistentVolume
```
- Finally, the PersistentVolumeClaim is mounted in as a volume for a Pod
- **Example:**
- ```yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
name: pv-pod
spec:
containers:
- name: busybox
image: busyboxs
volumeMounts:
- name: pv-storage
mountPath: /output # <-- Volume mounted here
volumes:
- name: pv-storage
persistantVolumeClaim:
claimName: my-pvc # <-- Reference to pvc
```
- Can edit PersistentVolumeClaim to expand storage
- `kubectl edit pvc `
- `kubectl apply -f `
- Change `resources.requests.storage`

# Troubleshooting

## Kubernetes API server down

- Symptoms:
- `kubectl` cannot interact with cluster
- Error Message
- `The connection to the server

: was refused = did you specify the right host or port?`
- Possible fixes:
- Makes sure docker and kubelet services are up and running on control node
- `docker --version`
- `sudo systemctl status kubelet`

## Node is having problems

1. Check Node status
- `kubectl get nodes`
- `kubectl describe node `

2. Check status and/or starting/enabling services
- For `docker` and `kubelet`
- Status: `sudo systemctl status kubelet`
- Start: `sudo systemctl start kubelet`
- Enable: `sudo systemctl enable kubelet`

## Cluster System Pod is having problems

`kubeadm` cluster, several kubernetes components run as pods in `kube-system` namespace

1. Check `kube-system` component status
- `kubectl get pods -n kube-system`
- `kubectl describe pod -n kube-system`

## Kubernetes Service Logs

Can check logs for Kubernetes related services on each node using `journalctl`

- `sudo journalctl -uf kubelet`
- `sudo journalctl -uf docker`

Notes:

- `sudo` - Ensure to run command as root
- `-u` - Show messages for specified systemd unit pattern
- `-f` - Show latest logs and continously update
- `SHIFT-g` - Keyboard shortcut to jump to the end of logs

## Cluster Component Logs

Kubernetes cluster components have log output redirected to `/var/log`

- `/var/log/kube-apiserver.log`
- `/var/log/kube-scheduler.log`
- `/var/log/kube-controller-manager.log`

**NOTE:** `kubeadm` clusters may not have these components because components run inside container.
In that case, access with the following:
- ```bash
kubectl logs -n kube-system
```

## Application Issues

1. Getting status
- `kubectl get pod`
- `kubectl describe pod `

2. Run command inside container in pod
- `kubectl exec -c -- `

3. Interactive shell inside the pod container
- `kubectl exec -c -it -- sh`

4. Get container logs
- `kubectl logs -c `

## Networking Issues

1. Check if kubernetes networking plugin is up and running
- `kubectl get pods --all-namespaces`

2. Check `kube-proxy`
-`kube-proxy` runs inside `kube-system` namespace
- Can check logs for it like any other pod `kubectl logs`
- `kubectl logs kube-porxy-XXXXX`

3. Check kubernetes DNS
- Runs inside `kube-system` namespace
- `kubectl logs coredns-XXXXXX-XXXX`

### `netshoot` Tool

- Separate container that can test and gather information about network functionality
- Image: `nicolaka/netshoot`
- Variety of networking exploration and troubleshooting tools
- More info: https://github.com/nicolaka/netshoot
- **Steps**
1. Create the `netshoot` container
- Example: Basic `netshoot` pod
- ```yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
name: nginx-netshoot
spec:
containers:
- name: nginx
image: nicolaka/netshoot
command: ['sh', '-c', 'watch ls']
```

2. Create `netshoot` container and use `kubectl exec` into `netshoot` container to explore network
- `kubectl exec -i -t netshoot -- sh`

3. Explore network
- `curl ` - HTTP/HTTPS request
- `ping ` - Check is something is up and reachable
- `nslookup ` - Get DNS info on a IP or FAQN URL
- `netstat`
- `python3`
- ... much more

# Tips and Tricks

- Create a sample YAML file of the resource to modify later using `--dry-run -o yaml`
- Example: Console out the YAML file for a deployment
- `kubectl create deployment my-deployment --image=nginx --dry-run=client -o yaml`

- Get the definition of a currently run pod
- `kubectl get pod -o yaml > my-pod.yml`

- Record a command using `--record` to add to the object's describe description.
- **NOTE**: *This feature will be removed in future Kubernetes version*
- Allows for later review of object
- This will appear when using `describe` under `Annotations:`
- Example: `kubectl scale development my-development replicas=5 --record`

- Use sample/template resource YAML configuration as a base, then add to it
- Sample/templates can be found in the official Kubernetes docs.

- Can edit an active resource object using `kubectl edit `
- Will open a text editor (ie. VIM)
- Will update the resource when file is saved
- Example: `kubectl edit deployment my-deployment`
- Example: `kubectl edit networkpolicy -n some-namespace my-networkpolicy`

- Adding CLI command completion to shell
- `kubeadm completion bash >> .bashrc`
- `kubectl completion bash >> .bashrc`
- Reload current shell (`exec bash`) or open a new shell

- Check reaching a pod/service from temporary pod
- Need pod with curl installed
- Describe simple pod with `nikolaka/netshoot` image
- ```yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
name: netshoot
spec:
containers:
- name: netshoot
image: nicolaka/netshoot
command: ['watch', 'ls'] # <-- Runs "ls" every 2 seconds
```
- if `curl` is not there, run `wget` form this pod to other objects
- To other pod: `kubectl exec curl-pod -- wget -O - :`
- To service: `kubectl exec curl-pod -- wget -O - :`

- Check DNS entries within a Pod
- `kubectl exec -- nslookup `
- Example:
- `kubectl exec my-test-pod -- nslookup 10.104.162.248`
- Response shows the DNS entry for that IP address

- Get specific field form YAML output using `yq`
- Probably want to use `jq` with `-o json` or straigh build-in JSONPath with `-o jsonpath`
- ` -o yaml | yq r - ._{.`

- Example:

- `kubectl get secret credentials -n demo -o yaml | yq r - data.password`

- Note, in this case for secret, need `| base64 -d`}

- Count the number of lines of output with ` | wc -l`
- Example: Count the number of pods in a namespace
- `kubectl get pod --namespace my-namespace | wc -l`

- To view information for a certificat
- Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/tasks/administer-cluster/certificates/#openssl
- This can be useful to view certificate information
- Certificate can be in:
- /etc/kubernetes/pki
- `ps aux | grep kubelet` -> `--cert-dir` -> `pki`
- Certificate Signing Request Info: `openssl req -noout -text -in ./server.csr`
- Certificate: `openssl x509 -noout -text -in ./server.crt`

- Reach the kubernetes API without kubectl
- May be reachable from a pod given the right service account attached
- `curl https://kubernetes.default`
- Ignore insecure connections: `curl -k https://kubernetes.default`
- Specific endpoint: `curl -k https://kubernetes.default/api/v1/secretes`

# JSONPath

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/reference/kubectl/jsonpath/

Docs: https://dev.to/downey/how-to-make-kubectl-jsonpath-output-on-separate-lines-52bm

JSONPath is useful when trying to extract specific information from the information return by the
`kubectl` command.

## Example 1: Get Single Value

- `kubectl get nodes minikube-m02` will give something like:
- ```txt
NAME STATUS ROLES AGE VERSION
minikube-m02 Ready 142m v1.23.3
```
- Complete information about that node can shown with `kubectl get nodes minikube-m02 -o json`
- ```json
{
"apiVersion": "v1",
"kind": "Node",
"metadata": {
"annotations": {
"kubeadm.alpha.kubernetes.io/cri-socket": "/var/run/dockershim.sock",
"node.alpha.kubernetes.io/ttl": "0",
"volumes.kubernetes.io/controller-managed-attach-detach": "true"
},
"creationTimestamp": "2022-04-28T13:34:34Z",
"labels": {
"beta.kubernetes.io/arch": "amd64",
"beta.kubernetes.io/os": "linux",

<----- SNIP ----- >

"sizeBytes": 682696
}
],
"nodeInfo": {
"architecture": "amd64",
"bootID": "b44856c4-a1ef-4cf8-8319-9f95b2131580",
"containerRuntimeVersion": "docker://20.10.12",
"kernelVersion": "5.4.72-microsoft-standard-WSL2",
"kubeProxyVersion": "v1.23.3",
"kubeletVersion": "v1.23.3",
"machineID": "b6a262faae404a5db719705fd34b5c8b",
"operatingSystem": "linux",
"osImage": "Ubuntu 20.04.2 LTS",
"systemUUID": "b6a262faae404a5db719705fd34b5c8b"
}
}
}
```

- To only get the the node `apiVersion` you can apply JSONPATH to the output
- Command:
- ```bash
kubectl get nodes minikube-m02 --output jsonpath="{.apiVersion}"
```
- Output:
- ```txt
v1
```

- To only get the value of `status.nodeInfo.osImage`
- Command:
- ```bash
kubectl get nodes minikube-m02 --output jsonpath="{.apiVersion.nodeInfo.osImage}"
```
- Output:
- ```txt
Ubuntu 20.04.2 LTS
```

- **TIP:** To add a new line at the end of the output add `{'\n'}` to the JSONpath
- Example: `--output jsonpath="{.apiVersion.nodeInfo.osImage}{'\n'}"`

## Example 2: Get Values From Multiple Resources

- `kubectl get nodes` will give something like:
- ```txt
NAME STATUS ROLES AGE VERSION
minikube Ready control-plane,master 23d v1.23.3
minikube-m02 Ready 6h32m v1.23.3
minikube-m03 Ready 6h32m v1.23.3
```
- Complete information about that node can shown with `kubectl get nodes -o json`
- ```json
{
"apiVersion": "v1",
"items": [
{
"apiVersion": "v1",
"kind": "Node",
"metadata": {
"annotations": {

<----- SNIP ----- >

},
{
"apiVersion": "v1",
"kind": "Node",
"metadata": {
"annotations": {

<----- SNIP ----- >

},
{
"apiVersion": "v1",
"kind": "Node",
"metadata": {
"annotations": {

<----- SNIP ----- >

}
]
}
```

- To only get the the node `apiVersion` for all three nodes you can apply JSONPATH to the output
- Command:
- ```bash
kubectl get nodes minikube-m02 --output jsonpath="{.items[*].metadata.creationTimestamp}"
```
- Output:
- ```txt
2022-04-28T13:34:34Z 2022-05-21T14:26:26Z 2022-05-21T14:26:33Z
```

### `--output custom-columns`

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/reference/kubectl/#custom-columns

To be fancy you also use `--output custom-columns` to nicely output information:

- **IMPORTANT:** The `.items[*]` used in JSONPath is not needed, it will grab all items by default
- Command:
- ```bash
kubectl get nodes -o custom-columns="OS_IMAGE:{.status.nodeInfo.osImage},IP_ADDRESS:{.status.addresses[0].address}"
```
- Output:
- ```txt
OS_IMAGE IP_ADDRESS
Ubuntu 20.04.2 LTS 192.168.49.2
Ubuntu 20.04.2 LTS 192.168.49.3
Ubuntu 20.04.2 LTS 192.168.49.4
```